Module 1

Introduction to Networking
1.1 Introduction to computer network, network application, network software and hardware
components (Interconnection networking devices), Network topology, protocol hierarchies, design
issues for the layers, connection oriented and connectionless services
1.2 Reference models: Layer details of OSI, TCP/IP models. Communication between layers.

NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node
can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.
“Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single
technology. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they can exchange information. The
connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, infrared, and communication
satellites can also be used. Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms, as we will see later. They
are usually connected together to make larger networks, with the Internet being the most well-known
example of a network of networks. There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer
network and a distributed system. The key distinction is that in a distributed system, a collection of
independent computers appears to its users as a single coherent system. Usually, it has a single model
or paradigm that it presents to the users. Often a layer of software on top of the operating system, called
middleware, is responsible for implementing this model. A well-known example of a distributed system
is the World Wide Web. It runs on top of the Internet and presents a model in which everything looks
like a document (Web page).

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS:

1. Business Applications:
to distribute information throughout the company (resource sharing). sharing physical resources such as
printers, and tape backup systems, is sharing information
a. Client-server model: It is widely used and forms the basis of much network usage.
b. Communication medium among employees: email (electronic mail), which employees generally
use for a great deal of daily communication.
c. Telephone calls between employees may be carried by the computer network instead of by the phone
company. This technology is called IP telephony or Voice over IP (VoIP) when Internet technology is
used.
d. Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and interact with a graphical computer screen doing
business electronically, especially with customers and suppliers. This new model is called e-commerce
(electronic commerce) and it has grown rapidly in recent years.
2. Home Applications:

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 ● peer-to-peer communication
● person-to-person communication
● electronic commerce
● entertainment (Online gaming)
3. Mobile Users
● Text messaging or texting
● Smart phones
● GPS (Global Positioning System)
● m-commerce
● NFC (Near Field Communication)

Network software and hardware components:

Computer networks components comprise both physical parts as well as the software required for
installing computer networks, both at organizations and at home. The hardware components are the
server, client, peer, transmission medium, and connecting devices. The software components are
operating system and protocols.
The following figure shows a network along with its components −

Hardware Components:
● Servers −Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the resources of the
network. The network operating system is typically installed in the server and so they give

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 user accesses to the network resources. Servers can be of various kinds: file servers, database
servers, print servers etc.
● Clients − Clients are computers that request and receive service from the servers to access and
use the network resources.
● Peers − Peers are computers that provide as well as receive services from other peers in a
workgroup network.
● Transmission Media − Transmission media are the channels through which data is transferred
from one device to another in a network. Transmission media may be guided media like coaxial
cable, fibre optic cables etc; or maybe unguided media like microwaves, infra-red waves etc.
● Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware between networks or computers,
by binding the network media together. Some of the common connecting devices are:
a. Routers
b. Bridges
c. Hubs
d. Repeaters
e. Gateways
f. Switches
NIC
o NIC stands for network interface card.
o NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer onto a network
o It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
o The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned
by the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM
(Programmable read-only memory).

There are two types of NIC:

1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC

Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used with
wired NIC to transfer data.

Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the wireless network. For
example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.

Hub: A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices. When
computer requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request to the Hub through

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 cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices will check whether the
request belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be dropped. The process used by the Hub
consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is
obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced computer network components such as Switches, Routers.
Switch: A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A Switch
contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides where the
data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on the physical
address present in the incoming message. A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network
like the Hub. It determines the device to whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say
that switch provides a direct connection between the source and destination. It increases the speed of
the network.
Router
o A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It is
used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network.
o A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
o A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
o It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.
Advantages Of Router:
o Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse the entire cable, but
the only specified device which has been addressed can read the data.
o Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down, but no other networks
are affected that are served by the router.
o Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network. Suppose there are 24
workstations in a network generates a same amount of traffic. This increases the traffic load on
the network. Router splits the single network into two networks of 12 workstations each,
reduces the traffic load by half.

Software Components:
Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is typically installed in the server and
facilitate workstations in a network to share files, database, applications, printers etc.
Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each computer for data communication.
Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down for computer networks. The two popular
protocol suites are −
a. OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)
b. TCP / IP Model

Type of Connection:

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 A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway that
transfers data from one device to another. There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and
multipoint.
Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point
connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible When you change television channels by infrared remote
control, you are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the television's
control system.
Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

Network Topology:
The term network (physical) topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Two
or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the
geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes)
to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

MESH: A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network.

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 Mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected mesh topology.
In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to each of the other computers
in that network. The number of connections in this network can be calculated using the following
formula (n is the number of computers in the network): n(n-1)/2
In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in the network have connections to
multiple other computers in that network. It is an inexpensive way to implement redundancy in a
network. If one of the primary computers or connections in the network fails, the rest of the network
continues to operate normally.
Advantages of a mesh topology
● Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.
● A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
● Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology
● The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable
option.
● Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time-consuming.
● The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential for
reduced efficiency.

STAR TOPOLOGY:

A star network, star topology is one of the most common network setups. In this configuration, every
node connects to a central network device, like a hub, switch, or computer. The central network device
acts as a server and the peripheral devices act as clients. Depending on the type of network card used

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 in each computer of the star topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network cable is used to connect
computers together.
Advantages of star topology:
● Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central computer, hub, or
switch.
● Easy to add another computer to the network.
● If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to function normally.
● The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs often use a
star topology with a central hub.
Disadvantages of star topology:
● Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router as the central
network device.
● The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the network can
handle.
● If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all computers
are disconnected from the network.
BUS TOPOLOGY:

a line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which each computer and network device are
connected to a single cable or backbone.
Advantages of bus topology:
● It works well when you have a small network.
● It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear fashion.
● It requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of bus topology:
● It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
● It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
● Bus topology is not great for large networks.
● Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
● Additional devices slow the network down.
● If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.
RING TOPOLOGY:

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 A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections create a circular data path. In
a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the next until they reach their destination. Most
ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one direction, called a unidirectional ring network. Others
permit data to move in either direction, called bidirectional. The major disadvantage of a ring topology
is that if any individual connection in the ring is broken, the entire network is affected. Ring topologies
may be used in either local area networks (LANs) or wide area networks (WANs).
Advantages of ring topology:
● All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
● A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each workstation.
● Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
● Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the network.
Disadvantages of ring topology:
● All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on the
network, which can make it slower than a star topology.
● The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
● The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more expensive than
Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.
Hybrid Topology
A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch
connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure below:

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 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.

Data Flow:
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in Figure.

Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (Figure a). Keyboards and traditional
monitors are examples of simplex devices.
Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (Figure b). Walkie-talkies and
CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
Full-Duplex: In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (Figure c). One
common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating over a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode
is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.

Protocol Hierarchies:
Most networks are organized as a stack of layers, one on top of another. The number of layers and their
names vary from network to network. Each layer has a specified function and adheres to

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 specified protocols. Thus we obtain a stack of protocols. The following figure illustrates a four-layer
network −

The above figure represents communication between Device A and Device B. The data stream from
one device to the other is not sent directly but has to pass through a number of layers. The layers in the
same levels are called peers and have a set of protocols for communication. Between each adjacent
layer is an interface that defines the services that are being offered by a lower layer to the next higher
layer. The dotted arrows depict virtual communication between peer layers, while the solid arrows
represent the physical communications between the adjacent layers.

Let us consider a situation where Device A wants to send a message to Device B. Device A passes its
information to the highest layer. As soon as a data stream reaches a layer, it performs some specified
functions on it and passes it to the layer below. This continues until the data stream reaches the lowest
layer. Layer 1 passes a bit stream of 0s and 1s to the physical medium that communicates it to the
Layer 1 of the receiving end. Each layer in the receiving end performs certain functions on the data
stream adhering to the protocol with its peer and passes it to the layer above. This continues until the
information reaches the highest layer. The highest layer then conveys the message to Device B in the
same format sent by Device A.

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 Advantages:

● The layers generally reduce complexity of communication between networks

● It increases network lifetime.
● It also uses energy efficiently.
● It does not require overall knowledge and understanding of network.

Design issues for the layers:

Several design issues exist for the layer-to-layer approach in computer networks. Some of the
main design issues are as follows −

Reliability: Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of bits while data
transfer. So, an important design issue is to make sure that the information transferred is not distorted.

Scalability: Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing leading to
congestion. Also, when new technologies are applied to the added components, it may lead to
incompatibility issues. Hence, the design should be done so that the networks are scalable and can
accommodate such additions and alterations.

Addressing: At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between large numbers of
computers. So, a naming or addressing system should exist so that each layer can identify the sender and
receivers of each message.

Error Control: Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that are
communicated. So, the layers need to agree upon common error detection and error correction methods
so as to protect data packets while they are transferred.

Flow Control: If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at which data is
received by the receiver, there are chances of overflowing the receiver. So, a proper flow control
mechanism needs to be implemented.

Resource Allocation: Computer networks provide services in the form of network resources to the end
users. The main design issue is to allocate and deallocate resources to processes. The
allocation/deallocation should occur so that minimal interference among the hosts occurs and there is
optimal usage of the resources.

Statistical Multiplexing: It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each message while it is being
transferred from the source to the destination. So, the data channel needs to be multiplexed, so as to
allocate a fraction of the bandwidth or time to each host.

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 Routing: There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination. Routing involves choosing
an optimal path among all possible paths, in terms of cost and time. There are several routing algorithms
that are used in network systems.

Security: A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats like eavesdropping and
surreptitious alteration of messages. So, there should be adequate mechanisms to prevent unauthorized
access to data through authentication and cryptography.

Connection oriented and connectionless services:

In order to establish a connection between two or more devices, there are services in Computer
Networks. There are two services that are given by the layers to layers above them. These services are as
follows:

1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Services

Connection-Oriented Services: There is a sequence of operations to be followed by the users of

connection-oriented services. These are:

1. The connection is established.

2. Information is sent.
3. The connection is released.

In connection-oriented service, we have to establish a connection before starting the communication.

When the connection is established, we send the message or the information and then we release the
connection.

Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service. We can send the message in
a connection-oriented service if there is an error at the receiver's end. An example of connection-
oriented is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) protocol.

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 In the above diagram, a solid line between Device A and Device B indicates that there is a dedicated
link with which the stream of data travels between them. With the help of this link, a receiver can send
an acknowledgment to the sender about the status of the packet.

Advantages: Benefits of Connection-Oriented Services are as follows:

● Connection-Oriented Services are reliable.

● There is no duplication of data packets.
● There are no chances of Congestion.
● These are Suitable for long connections.
● Sequencing of data packets is guaranteed.

Disadvantages: Drawbacks of Connection-Oriented Service are as follows:

● This allocation of resources is mandatory before communication.

● The speed of connection is slower. As much time is taken for establishing and relinquishing
the connection.
● In the case of Network Congestion or router failures, there are no alternative ways to continue
with communication.

Connection Less Services:

It is similar to the postal services, as it carries the full address where the message (letter) is to be carried.
Each message is routed independently from source to destination. The order of messages sent can be
different from the order received.

In connectionless the data is transferred in one direction from source to destination without checking the
destination is still there or not or if it prepared to accept the message. Authentication is not needed in
this. An example of a Connectionless service is UDP (User Datagram Protocol) protocol.

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 Advantages: Benefits of Connection Less Services are as follows:

● There are usually low overheads.

● Connection-Oriented services help to broadcast or multicast messages to multiple
recipients.
● In this, there is no circuit setup. Thus it takes a fraction of a minute in order to establish a
connection.
● In the case of Network congestion or router failures, it has an alternative path of data
transmission.

Disadvantages: Drawbacks of Connection, fewer services are as follows:

● These are susceptible to congestion in the network.

● It is not reliable as there is the possibility of a loss of data packets, wrong delivery of packets
or duplication is high.
● In this, each data packet needs lengthy fields because these are supposed to hold all the
destination addresses and the routing information.

Differences between the above given two services:

Connection-Oriented Services Connection Less Services

Connection-Oriented services are designed on the Connectionless services are based on the Postal
basis of the Telephone System. System.

In this type of service, a prior connection needs In this type of service, no prior connection is
to be established. needed.

These services Ensure the reliable transfer of data. As these services are best efforts services but
reliability is not guaranteed in these.

There is no possibility of congestion. There are chances of occurrence of congestion

using these services.

In this authentication is required before In this, authentication is not required before

transmitting the data packets to the receiver. transmitting the data packets to the receiver.

These services are suitable for long and steady These services are suitable for bursty
transmissions. transmissions.

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 In this connection is established through the process of There is no such signaling concept exists.
signaling

In this type of service, data packets travel towards In this type of service, data packets travel
their destination node in a sequential manner. towards their destination node in a random
manner.

Retransmission of lost data bits is possible. In this, it is not possible.

Delay is more while transferring the information. Due to the absence of the connection
But after the establishment of connection, these establishment phase, there is no delay.
services offer fast delivery of information.

Connection-Oriented Service Primitives:

There are 5 types of primitives for Connection-Oriented Service:

LISTEN Block waiting for an incoming connection

CONNECTION Establish a connection with a waiting peer

RECEIVE Block waiting for an incoming message

SEND Sending a message to the peer

DISCONNECT Terminate a connection

Connectionless Service Primitives:

There are 2 types of primitives for Connectionless Service:

UNIDATA This primitive sends a packet of data

FACILITY, Primitive for enquiring about the performance of the network, like delivery
REPORT statistics.

OSI:
· OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.

· Created by International Standards Organization (ISO).

· Was created as a framework and reference model to explain how different networking
technologies work together and interact.

· It is not a standard that networking protocols must follow.

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 · Each layer has specific functions it is responsible for.

· All layers work together in the correct order to move data around a network.

Physical Layer:

· Deals with all aspects of physically moving data from one computer to the next

· Converts data from the upper layers into 1s and 0s for transmission over media

· Defines how data is encoded onto the media to transmit the data

· Defined on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and fiber optic standards.

· Copper wiring, fiber optic cable, radio frequencies, anything that can be used to transmit data is
defined on the Physical layer of the OSI Model

· Device example: Hub

· Used to transmit data

Data Link Layer:

· Is responsible for moving frames from node to node or computer to computer

· Can move frames from one adjacent computer to another, cannot move frames across routers

· Encapsulation = frame

· Requires MAC address or physical address

· Protocols defined include Ethernet Protocol and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

· Device example: Switch

· Two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access Control (MAC)

o Logical Link Control (LLC) –Data Link layer addressing, flow control, address
notification, error control

o Media Access Control (MAC) –Determines which computer has access to the
network media at any given time –Determines where one frame ends and the next
one starts, called frame synchronization

Network Layer:

. Responsible for moving packets (data) from one end of the network to the other, called end-
to-end communications Requires logical addresses such as IP addresses.

. Device example: Router

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 –Routing is the ability of various network devices and their related software to move data packets
from source to destination

Transport Layer:

. Takes data from higher levels of OSI Model and breaks it into segments that can be sent to
lower-level layers for data transmission

. Conversely, reassembles data segments into data that higher-level protocols and applications
can use

. Also puts segments in correct order (called sequencing ) so they can be reassembled in correct
order at destination

. Concerned with the reliability of the transport of sent data

. May use a connection-oriented protocol such as TCP to ensure destination received segments

. May use a connectionless protocol such as UDP to send segments without assurance of
delivery

. Uses port addressing

Session Layer:

. Responsible for managing the dialog between networked devices

. Establishes, manages, and terminates connections

. Provides duplex, half-duplex, or simplex communications between devices

. Provides procedures for establishing checkpoints, adjournment, termination, and restart or

recovery procedures

Presentation Layer:

· Concerned with how data is presented to the network

· Handles three primary tasks: –Translation , –Compression , –Encryption

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 Application Layer:
. Contains all services or protocols needed by application software or operating system to
communicate on the network
Examples
–Firefox web browser uses HTTP (Hyper-Text Transport Protocol)
–E-mail program may use POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) to read e-mails and SMTP (Simple
Mail Transport Protocol) to send e-mails

The interaction between layers in the OSI model:

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 An Exchange using the OSI Model:

TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol):

–A protocol suite is a large number of related protocols that work together to allow networked
computers to communicate.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is based
on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model
is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four.
The entire IP suite -- a set of rules and procedures -- is commonly referred to as TCP/IP. TCP and IP are
the two main protocols, though others are included in the suite. The TCP/IP protocol suite functions as
an abstraction layer between internet applications and the routing and switching fabric.

TCP/IP functionality is divided into four layers, each of which includes specific protocols:

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 1. The application layer provides applications with standardized data exchange. Its protocols
include HTTP, FTP, Post Office Protocol 3, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and Simple
Network Management Protocol. At the application layer, the payload is the actual
application data. Application layer protocols define the rules when implementing specific
network applications. Rely on the underlying layers to provide accurate and efficient data
delivery. Typical protocols:
a. FTP – File Transfer Protocol For file transfer
b. Telnet – Remote terminal protocol For remote login on any other computer on the
network
c. SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol For mail transfer

d. HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol For Web browsing

e. Encompasses same functions as these OSI Model layers Application Presentation
Session
2. The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications across the
network. TCP handles communications between hosts and provides flow control,
multiplexing and reliability. The transport protocols include TCP and User Datagram
Protocol, which is sometimes used instead of TCP for special purposes.
a. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol
i. Does not mean it has a physical connection between sender and receiver
ii. TCP provides the function to allow a connection virtually exists – also called
virtual circuit

b. UDP provides the functions:Dividing a chunk of data into segments

I. Reassembly segments into the original chunk o

II. Provide further the functions such as reordering and data resend

c. Offering a reliable byte-stream delivery service

d. Functions the same as the Transport layer in OSI
e. Synchronize source and destination computers to set up the session between the respective
computers

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 3. The Network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects
independent networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The network
layer protocols are IP and Internet Control Message Protocol, which is used for error
reporting.
4. The Host-to-host layer, also known as the network interface layer or data link layer,
consists of protocols that operate only on a link -- the network component that interconnects
nodes or hosts in the network. The protocols in this lowest layer include Ethernet for local
area networks and Address Resolution Protocol. It combines the link layer and the physical
layer of the ISO/OSI model. At this layer, data is transferred between adjacent network
nodes in a WAN or between nodes on the same LAN.

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