An Introduction to Data Structures

Since the invention of computers, people have been using the term "Data" to refer to
Computer Information, either transmitted or stored. However, there is data that exists
in order types as well. Data can be numbers or texts written on a piece of paper, in the
form of bits and bytes stored inside the memory of electronic devices, or facts stored
within a person's mind. As the world started modernizing, this data became a
significant aspect of everyone's day-to-day life, and various implementations allowed
them to store it differently.

Data is a collection of facts and figures or a set of values or values of a specific format
that refers to a single set of item values. The data items are then classified into sub-
items, which is the group of items that are not known as the simple primary form of
the item.

Let us consider an example where an employee name can be broken down into three
sub-items: First, Middle, and Last. However, an ID assigned to an employee will
generally be considered a single item.

Figure 1: Representation of Data Items

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In the example mentioned above, the items such as ID, Age, Gender, First, Middle, Last,
Street, Locality, etc., are elementary data items. In contrast, the Name and the Address
are group data items.

What is Data Structure?

Data Structure is a branch of Computer Science. The study of data structure allows us
to understand the organization of data and the management of the data flow in order
to increase the efficiency of any process or program. Data Structure is a particular way
of storing and organizing data in the memory of the computer so that these data can
easily be retrieved and efficiently utilized in the future when required. The data can be
managed in various ways, like the logical or mathematical model for a specific
organization of data is known as a data structure.

The scope of a particular data model depends on two factors:

1. First, it must be loaded enough into the structure to reflect the definite
correlation of the data with a real-world object.
2. Second, the formation should be so straightforward that one can adapt to
process the data efficiently whenever necessary.

Some examples of Data Structures are Arrays, Linked Lists, Stack, Queue, Trees, etc.
Data Structures are widely used in almost every aspect of Computer Science, i.e.,
Compiler Design, Operating Systems, Graphics, Artificial Intelligence, and many more.

Data Structures are the main part of many Computer Science Algorithms as they allow
the programmers to manage the data in an effective way. It plays a crucial role in
improving the performance of a program or software, as the main objective of the
software is to store and retrieve the user's data as fast as possible.

Basic Terminologies related to Data Structures

Data Structures are the building blocks of any software or program. Selecting the
suitable data structure for a program is an extremely challenging task for a
programmer.

The following are some fundamental terminologies used whenever the data structures
are involved:

1. Data: We can define data as an elementary value or a collection of values. For

example, the Employee's name and ID are the data related to the Employee.
2. Data Items: A Single unit of value is known as Data Item.
3. Group Items: Data Items that have subordinate data items are known as Group
Items. For example, an employee's name can have a first, middle, and last name.
4. Elementary Items: Data Items that are unable to divide into sub-items are
known as Elementary Items. For example, the ID of an Employee.
5. Entity and Attribute: A class of certain objects is represented by an Entity. It
consists of different Attributes. Each Attribute symbolizes the specific property
of that Entity. For example,
 Attributes ID Name Gender Job Title

Values 1234 Stacey M. Hill Female Software Developer

Entities with similar attributes form an Entity Set. Each attribute of an entity set has a
range of values, the set of all possible values that could be assigned to the specific
attribute.

The term "information" is sometimes utilized for data with given attributes of
meaningful or processed data.

1. Field: A single elementary unit of information symbolizing the Attribute of an

Entity is known as Field.
2. Record: A collection of different data items are known as a Record. For
example, if we talk about the employee entity, then its name, id, address, and
job title can be grouped to form the record for the employee.
3. File: A collection of different Records of one entity type is known as a File. For
example, if there are 100 employees, there will be 25 records in the related file
containing data about each employee.

Understanding the Need for Data Structures

As applications are becoming more complex and the amount of data is increasing
every day, which may lead to problems with data searching, processing speed, multiple
requests handling, and many more. Data Structures support different methods to
organize, manage, and store data efficiently. With the help of Data Structures, we can
easily traverse the data items. Data Structures provide Efficiency, Reusability, and
Abstraction.

Why should we learn Data Structures?

1. Data Structures and Algorithms are two of the key aspects of Computer Science.
2. Data Structures allow us to organize and store data, whereas Algorithms allow
us to process that data meaningfully.
3. Learning Data Structures and Algorithms will help us become better
Programmers.
4. We will be able to write code that is more effective and reliable.
5. We will also be able to solve problems more quickly and efficiently.
Understanding the Objectives of Data Structures
Data Structures satisfy two complementary objectives:

1. Correctness: Data Structures are designed to operate correctly for all kinds of
inputs based on the domain of interest. In order words, correctness forms the
primary objective of Data Structure, which always depends upon the problems
that the Data Structure is meant to solve.
2. Efficiency: Data Structures also requires to be efficient. It should process the
data quickly without utilizing many computer resources like memory space. In
a real-time state, the efficiency of a data structure is a key factor in determining
the success and failure of the process.

Understanding some Key Features of Data Structures

Some of the Significant Features of Data Structures are:

1. Robustness: Generally, all computer programmers aim to produce software

that yields correct output for every possible input, along with efficient execution
on all hardware platforms. This type of robust software must manage both valid
and invalid inputs.
2. Adaptability: Building software applications like Web Browsers, Word
Processors, and Internet Search Engine include huge software systems that
require correct and efficient working or execution for many years. Moreover,
software evolves due to emerging technologies or ever-changing market
conditions.
3. Reusability: The features like Reusability and Adaptability go hand in hand. It
is known that the programmer needs many resources to build any software,
making it a costly enterprise. However, if the software is developed in a reusable
and adaptable way, then it can be applied in most future applications. Thus, by
executing quality data structures, it is possible to build reusable software, which
appears to be cost-effective and timesaving.

Classification of Data Structures

A Data Structure delivers a structured set of variables related to each other in various
ways. It forms the basis of a programming tool that signifies the relationship between
the data elements and allows programmers to process the data efficiently.
We can classify Data Structures into two categories:

1. Primitive Data Structure

2. Non-Primitive Data Structure

The following figure shows the different classifications of Data Structures.

Figure 2: Classifications of Data Structures

Primitive Data Structures

1. Primitive Data Structures are the data structures consisting of the numbers
and the characters that come in-built into programs.
2. These data structures can be manipulated or operated directly by machine-level
instructions.
3. Basic data types like Integer, Float, Character, and Boolean come under the
Primitive Data Structures.
4. These data types are also called Simple data types, as they contain characters
that can't be divided further

Non-Primitive Data Structures

1. Non-Primitive Data Structures are those data structures derived from

Primitive Data Structures.
2. These data structures can't be manipulated or operated directly by machine-
level instructions.
 3. The focus of these data structures is on forming a set of data elements that is
either homogeneous (same data type) or heterogeneous (different data
types).
4. Based on the structure and arrangement of data, we can divide these data
structures into two sub-categories -
a. Linear Data Structures
b. Non-Linear Data Structures

Linear Data Structures

A data structure that preserves a linear connection among its data elements is known
as a Linear Data Structure. The arrangement of the data is done linearly, where each
element consists of the successors and predecessors except the first and the last data
element. However, it is not necessarily true in the case of memory, as the arrangement
may not be sequential.

Based on memory allocation, the Linear Data Structures are further classified into two
types:

1. Static Data Structures: The data structures having a fixed size are known as
Static Data Structures. The memory for these data structures is allocated at the
compiler time, and their size cannot be changed by the user after being
compiled; however, the data stored in them can be altered.
The Array is the best example of the Static Data Structure as they have a fixed
size, and its data can be modified later.
2. Dynamic Data Structures: The data structures having a dynamic size are
known as Dynamic Data Structures. The memory of these data structures is
allocated at the run time, and their size varies during the run time of the code.
Moreover, the user can change the size as well as the data elements stored in
these data structures at the run time of the code.
Linked Lists, Stacks, and Queues are common examples of dynamic data
structures

Types of Linear Data Structures

The following is the list of Linear Data Structures that we generally use:

1. Arrays
An Array is a data structure used to collect multiple data elements of the same data
type into one variable. Instead of storing multiple values of the same data types in
separate variable names, we could store all of them together into one variable. This
statement doesn't imply that we will have to unite all the values of the same data type
in any program into one array of that data type. But there will often be times when
some specific variables of the same data types are all related to one another in a way
appropriate for an array.

An Array is a list of elements where each element has a unique place in the list. The
data elements of the array share the same variable name; however, each carries a
different index number called a subscript. We can access any data element from the
list with the help of its location in the list. Thus, the key feature of the arrays to
understand is that the data is stored in contiguous memory locations, making it
possible for the users to traverse through the data elements of the array using their
respective indexes.

Figure 3. An Array

Arrays can be classified into different types:

a. One-Dimensional Array: An Array with only one row of data elements is

known as a One-Dimensional Array. It is stored in ascending storage location.
b. Two-Dimensional Array: An Array consisting of multiple rows and columns of
data elements is called a Two-Dimensional Array. It is also known as a Matrix.
c. Multidimensional Array: We can define Multidimensional Array as an Array of
Arrays. Multidimensional Arrays are not bounded to two indices or two
dimensions as they can include as many indices are per the need.

Some Applications of Array:

a. We can store a list of data elements belonging to the same data type.
b. Array acts as an auxiliary storage for other data structures.
c. The array also helps store data elements of a binary tree of the fixed count.
d. Array also acts as a storage of matrices.
2. Linked Lists

A Linked List is another example of a linear data structure used to store a collection
of data elements dynamically. Data elements in this data structure are represented by
the Nodes, connected using links or pointers. Each node contains two fields, the
information field consists of the actual data, and the pointer field consists of the
address of the subsequent nodes in the list. The pointer of the last node of the linked
list consists of a null pointer, as it points to nothing. Unlike the Arrays, the user can
dynamically adjust the size of a Linked List as per the requirements.

Figure 4. A Linked List

Linked Lists can be classified into different types:

a. Singly Linked List: A Singly Linked List is the most common type of Linked List.
Each node has data and a pointer field containing an address to the next node.
b. Doubly Linked List: A Doubly Linked List consists of an information field and
two pointer fields. The information field contains the data. The first pointer field
contains an address of the previous node, whereas another pointer field
contains a reference to the next node. Thus, we can go in both directions
(backward as well as forward).
c. Circular Linked List: The Circular Linked List is similar to the Singly Linked List.
The only key difference is that the last node contains the address of the first
node, forming a circular loop in the Circular Linked List.

Some Applications of Linked Lists:

a. The Linked Lists help us implement stacks, queues, binary trees, and graphs of
predefined size.
b. We can also implement Operating System's function for dynamic memory
management.
c. Linked Lists also allow polynomial implementation for mathematical operations.
 d. We can use Circular Linked List to implement Operating Systems or application
functions that Round Robin execution of tasks.
e. Circular Linked List is also helpful in a Slide Show where a user requires to go
back to the first slide after the last slide is presented.
f. Doubly Linked List is utilized to implement forward and backward buttons in a
browser to move forward and backward in the opened pages of a website.

3. Stacks

A Stack is a Linear Data Structure that follows the LIFO (Last In, First Out) principle that
allows operations like insertion and deletion from one end of the Stack, i.e., Top. Stacks
can be implemented with the help of contiguous memory, an Array, and non-
contiguous memory, a Linked List. Real-life examples of Stacks are piles of books, a
deck of cards, piles of money, and many more.

Figure 5. A Real-life Example of Stack

The above figure represents the real-life example of a Stack where the operations are
performed from one end only, like the insertion and removal of new books from the
top of the Stack. It implies that the insertion and deletion in the Stack can be done
only from the top of the Stack. We can access only the Stack's tops at any given time.

The primary operations in the Stack are as follows:

a. Push: Operation to insert a new element in the Stack is termed as Push
Operation.
b. Pop: Operation to remove or delete elements from the Stack is termed as Pop
Operation.

Figure 6. A Stack

Some Applications of Stacks:

a. The Stack is used as a Temporary Storage Structure for recursive operations.

b. Stack is also utilized as Auxiliary Storage Structure for function calls, nested
operations, and deferred/postponed functions.
c. We can manage function calls using Stacks.
d. Stacks are also utilized to evaluate the arithmetic expressions in different
programming languages.
e. Stacks are also helpful in converting infix expressions to postfix expressions.
f. Stacks allow us to check the expression's syntax in the programming
environment.
g. We can match parenthesis using Stacks.
h. Stacks can be used to reverse a String.
i. Stacks are helpful in solving problems based on backtracking.
 j. We can use Stacks in depth-first search in graph and tree traversal.
k. Stacks are also used in Operating System functions.
l. Stacks are also used in UNDO and REDO functions in an edit.

4. Queues

A Queue is a linear data structure similar to a Stack with some limitations on the
insertion and deletion of the elements. The insertion of an element in a Queue is done
at one end, and the removal is done at another or opposite end. Thus, we can conclude
that the Queue data structure follows FIFO (First In, First Out) principle to manipulate
the data elements. Implementation of Queues can be done using Arrays, Linked Lists,
or Stacks. Some real-life examples of Queues are a line at the ticket counter, an
escalator, a car wash, and many more.

Figure 7. A Real-life Example of Queue

The above image is a real-life illustration of a movie ticket counter that can help us
understand the Queue where the customer who comes first is always served first. The
customer arriving last will undoubtedly be served last. Both ends of the Queue are
open and can execute different operations. Another example is a food court line where
the customer is inserted from the rear end while the customer is removed at the front
end after providing the service they asked for.

The following are the primary operations of the Queue:

a. Enqueue: The insertion or Addition of some data elements to the Queue is

called Enqueue. The element insertion is always done with the help of the rear pointer.
 b. Dequeue: Deleting or removing data elements from the Queue is termed
Dequeue. The deletion of the element is always done with the help of the front
pointer.

Figure 8. A Queue

Some Applications of Queues:

a. Queues are generally used in the breadth search operation in Graphs.

b. Queues are also used in Job Scheduler Operations of Operating Systems, like a
keyboard buffer queue to store the keys pressed by users and a print buffer
queue to store the documents printed by the printer.
c. Queues are responsible for CPU scheduling, Job scheduling, and Disk
Scheduling.
d. Priority Queues are utilized in file-downloading operations in a browser.
e. Queues are also used to transfer data between peripheral devices and the CPU.
f. Queues are also responsible for handling interrupts generated by the User
Applications for the CPU.

Non-Linear Data Structures

Non-Linear Data Structures are data structures where the data elements are not
arranged in sequential order. Here, the insertion and removal of data are not feasible
in a linear manner. There exists a hierarchical relationship between the individual data
items.

Types of Non-Linear Data Structures

The following is the list of Non-Linear Data Structures that we generally use:

1. Trees
A Tree is a Non-Linear Data Structure and a hierarchy containing a collection of nodes
such that each node of the tree stores a value and a list of references to other nodes
(the "children").

The Tree data structure is a specialized method to arrange and collect data in the
computer to be utilized more effectively. It contains a central node, structural nodes,
and sub-nodes connected via edges. We can also say that the tree data structure
consists of roots, branches, and leaves connected.

Figure 9. A Tree

Trees can be classified into different types:

a. Binary Tree: A Tree data structure where each parent node can have at most
two children is termed a Binary Tree.
b. Binary Search Tree: A Binary Search Tree is a Tree data structure where we can
easily maintain a sorted list of numbers.
c. AVL Tree: An AVL Tree is a self-balancing Binary Search Tree where each node
maintains extra information known as a Balance Factor whose value is either -
1, 0, or +1.
d. B-Tree: A B-Tree is a special type of self-balancing Binary Search Tree where
each node consists of multiple keys and can have more than two children.

Some Applications of Trees:

a. Trees implement hierarchical structures in computer systems like directories
and file systems.
b. Trees are also used to implement the navigation structure of a website.
c. We can generate code like Huffman's code using Trees.
d. Trees are also helpful in decision-making in Gaming applications.
e. Trees are responsible for implementing priority queues for priority-based OS
scheduling functions.
f. Trees are also responsible for parsing expressions and statements in the
compilers of different programming languages.
g. We can use Trees to store data keys for indexing for Database Management
System (DBMS).
h. Spanning Trees allows us to route decisions in Computer and Communications
Networks.
i. Trees are also used in the path-finding algorithm implemented in Artificial
Intelligence (AI), Robotics, and Video Games Applications.

2. Graphs

A Graph is another example of a Non-Linear Data Structure comprising a finite number

of nodes or vertices and the edges connecting them. The Graphs are utilized to address
problems of the real world in which it denotes the problem area as a network such as
social networks, circuit networks, and telephone networks. For instance, the nodes or
vertices of a Graph can represent a single user in a telephone network, while the edges
represent the link between them via telephone.

The Graph data structure, G is considered a mathematical structure comprised of a set

of vertices, V and a set of edges, E as shown below:

G = (V,E)

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Figure 10. A Graph

The above figure represents a Graph having seven vertices A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and ten
edges [A, B], [A, C], [B, C], [B, D], [B, E], [C, D], [D, E], [D, F], [E, F], and [E, G].

Depending upon the position of the vertices and edges, the Graphs can be
classified into different types:

a. Null Graph: A Graph with an empty set of edges is termed a Null Graph.
b. Trivial Graph: A Graph having only one vertex is termed a Trivial Graph.
c. Simple Graph: A Graph with neither self-loops nor multiple edges is known as
a Simple Graph.
d. Multi Graph: A Graph is said to be Multi if it consists of multiple edges but no
self-loops.
e. Pseudo Graph: A Graph with self-loops and multiple edges is termed a Pseudo
Graph.
f. Non-Directed Graph: A Graph consisting of non-directed edges is known as a
Non-Directed Graph.
g. Directed Graph: A Graph consisting of the directed edges between the vertices
is known as a Directed Graph.
h. Connected Graph: A Graph with at least a single path between every pair of
vertices is termed a Connected Graph.
 i. Disconnected Graph: A Graph where there does not exist any path between at
least one pair of vertices is termed a Disconnected Graph.
j. Regular Graph: A Graph where all vertices have the same degree is termed a
Regular Graph.
k. Complete Graph: A Graph in which all vertices have an edge between every
pair of vertices is known as a Complete Graph.
l. Cycle Graph: A Graph is said to be a Cycle if it has at least three vertices and
edges that form a cycle.
m. Cyclic Graph: A Graph is said to be Cyclic if and only if at least one cycle exists.
n. Acyclic Graph: A Graph having zero cycles is termed an Acyclic Graph.
o. Finite Graph: A Graph with a finite number of vertices and edges is known as a
Finite Graph.
p. Infinite Graph: A Graph with an infinite number of vertices and edges is known
as an Infinite Graph.
q. Bipartite Graph: A Graph where the vertices can be divided into independent
sets A and B, and all the vertices of set A should only be connected to the
vertices present in set B with some edges is termed a Bipartite Graph.
r. Planar Graph: A Graph is said to be a Planar if we can draw it in a single plane
with two edges intersecting each other.
s. Euler Graph: A Graph is said to be Euler if and only if all the vertices are even
degrees.
t. Hamiltonian Graph: A Connected Graph consisting of a Hamiltonian circuit is
known as a Hamiltonian Graph.

Some Applications of Graphs:

a. Graphs help us represent routes and networks in transportation, travel, and

communication applications.
b. Graphs are used to display routes in GPS.
c. Graphs also help us represent the interconnections in social networks and other
network-based applications.
d. Graphs are utilized in mapping applications.
e. Graphs are responsible for the representation of user preference in e-commerce
applications.
f. Graphs are also used in Utility networks in order to identify the problems posed
to local or municipal corporations.
g. Graphs also help to manage the utilization and availability of resources in an
organization.
h. Graphs are also used to make document link maps of the websites in order to
display the connectivity between the pages through hyperlinks.
i. Graphs are also used in robotic motions and neural networks.