.

Class,object(instance),method

L=[1,2,3,4]

l.append(8)

this is class LIST

In class we define how our upcoming object going to be .we have defined that list is going to be
defined by square bracket,elements would be separated by ’ ,’we can define int,char,floating in list
L=object of class list
Append=method
In the class list we have defined multiple functions. All these functions are called methods.
L3=[’kal’]
L3=object of class list
#how to define class
#WE will define the class, -→1st letter of the class must be capital letter

Class Person: #person is name of class

#we will define method/function =init,in this function 1st argument is always self and self represents
object=L=[1,2,3,4]

Def_init_(self,first_name,age,height): #first_name,age,ht are the attributes of the Class

Person

NGFRR#now we are going to define instance variable with the help of above defined object

Self.first_name=first_name

Self.age=age

Self.height=height

### now we will define the object

P1=person(‘harshit’,24,5.3) #p1 is object of the person class and in that we have attributes

Working=when P1 is defined,init function is called,now self represent the object P1,so p1 has now
diff attributes like first name,age,ht
class Person:​
def __init__(self, first_name, age, last_name):​
print('init')​
self.first_name= first_name​
self.age= age​
self.last_name= last_name​
​
​
p1 = Person('Kal', 32, 'har')​
​
print(p1.first_name)

O/P=

Kal

Output shows that first function in_it is called then object p1.first name is called

##We can define more no of instance variable then no of attributes defined in init function
class Laptop:​
def __init__(self, brand_name, model_name, price):​
​
self.brand_name= brand_name​
self.model_name= model_name​
self.price= price​
self.brand= brand_name+ ' ' + model_name #no of variable defined is 4 but
arguments passed are 3 in init​
​
​
p1 = Laptop('Kal', 'abc', 'har')​
​
print(p1.brand)
###INSTANCE METHOD==Defining object of class

class Person:
def __init__(self, first_name , age , last_name):
self.first_name = first_name
self.last_name = last_name
self.person_age=age
def full_name(self):
return f"Person full name is {self.first_name} {self.last_name}"

p1=Person('Kalpesh',25,'Deshpande')
print(p1.full_name())
O/P=

Person full name is Kalpesh Deshpande

list.clear(l) is same as l.clear()

class Person:
def __init__(self, first_name , age , last_name):
self.first_name = first_name
self.last_name = last_name
self.person_age=age

def full_name(self):
return f"Person full name is {self.first_name} {self.last_name}"

def is_above_18(self):
if self.person_age > 18:
return f'you are eligible'
else:
return f'you are not eligible'
p1=Person('Kalpesh',17,'Deshpande')
print(p1.is_above_18())

Exercise=Def function to calc discounted price

class Laptop:
def __init__(self, price):
self.laptop_price = price
def discount(self,off_percent):
return self.laptop_price-(off_percent*self.laptop_price)/100
p1=Laptop(800)

print(p1.discount(20))

O/P=640

###CLASS VARIABLE:

if we want same instance variable value in every method ,so we defined such variable as class
variable

ex=if we are defining Circle class in that class every method will require pi value which is
constant=3.14

class Circle:​
def __init__(self,radius,pi):​
self.radius=radius​
self.pi=pi​
def circum(self):​
return 2*self.radius*self.pi​
p1=Circle(4,3.14)​
p2=Circle(5,3.14)​
print(p1)

we have constant value of pi 3.14 passed in every object,as we are passing it multiple every object
will occupy separate memory space

Soln=Class Variable
class Circle:​
pi=3.1 ​
def __init__(self,radius):​
self.radius=radius​
​
def circum(self):​
return 2*self.radius*Circle.pi​
p1=Circle(4)​
p2=Circle(5)

another example ==Laptop

here if we want same discount=10% on all object then we have defined class variable discount

class Laptop:​
discount =10​
def __init__(self, brand_name, model_name, price):​
​
self.brand_name= brand_name​
self.model_name= model_name​
self.price= price​
 self.brand= brand_name+ ' ' + model_name​
​
def apply(self):​
off_price=(Laptop.discount*100)/self.price​
return self.price-off_price​
​
p1 = Laptop('Kal', 'abc', 200)​
print(p1.apply())

###PROBLEM-but what if we want different discount but we want to use the class variable
class Laptop:​
discount =10​
def __init__(self, brand_name, model_name, price):​
​
self.brand_name= brand_name​
self.model_name= model_name​
self.price= price​
self.brand= brand_name+ ' ' + model_name​
​
def apply(self):​
off_price=(Laptop.discount*100)/self.price​
return self.price-off_price​
Laptop.discount = 20​
p1 = Laptop('Kal', 'abc', 200)​
prin t(p1.apply())

##TO CHECK what object contain

1.To check variable in object=

print(p1.__dict__)

O/P=

{'brand_name': 'Kal', 'model_name': 'abc', 'price': 200, 'brand': 'Kal abc'}

CLASS METHOD :::

Class method- it is used to change the class variable.

A class method is a method that's bound to the class, not the instance. It takes cls
as its first parameter and is defined using the @classmethod decorator.

It can access and modify class-level data that is shared among all instances. Class
methods are commonly used for factory methods or to update class variables."**
 "We use a class method when we want to do something that affects the class as a
whole, not just one instance. For example, updating a shared discount rate, or creating
an object from a different format (like from a string or JSON)."

1.Class method- it is used to change the class variable.

class Person:

rad_pi=3

def __init__(self,name,age):

self.p_name=name

self.age_p=age

@classmethod

def circl_curm(cls,new_pi):

Person.rad_pi=new_pi

Person.circl_curm(4) - here we used cls method to change cls variable value

p1=Person('kalpesh',21)

print(p1.rad_pi)

p2=Person('bharg',31)

print(p2.rad_pi)

2. To create object from string

class Pizza:

def __init__(self, size, toppings):

print('init called')

self.size = size

self.toppings = toppings

@classmethod
 def margherita(cls):

return cls("medium", ["cheese", "tomato"])

@classmethod

def from_string(cls, pizza_str):

size, toppings_str = pizza_str.split(",")

toppings = toppings_str.split("-")

return cls(size, toppings)

def display(self):

print(f"Pizza size: {self.size}, Toppings: {',

'.join(self.toppings)}")

# Using the margherita factory method

p1 = Pizza.margherita()

p1.display()

# Output: Pizza size: medium, Toppings: cheese, tomato

# Using the from_string factory method

p2 = Pizza.from_string("large,pepperoni-onion-olives")

p2.display()

# Output: Pizza size: large, Toppings: pepperoni, onion, olives

init called

Pizza size: medium, Toppings: cheese, tomato

init called

Pizza size: large, Toppings: pepperoni, onion, olives

Even when you're using a factory method like .margherita() or .from_string(), you're still
creating an object — and that means the constructor (__init__) gets called internally.

🔄 What’s happening under the hood:

Here’s what happens when you run:
p1 = Pizza.margherita()

1.​ You call the class method margherita().​

Inside that method, it does:​

​
return cls("medium", ["cheese", "tomato"])

which is the same as:​

​
return Pizza("medium", ["cheese", "tomato"])

2.​
3.​ That calls the constructor, so __init__() runs and prints "init called".​

✅ So why use a factory method if __init__() still runs?

Because:

●​ You're not calling __init__() directly​

●​ You're letting the class method handle the object creation logic​

●​ It can:​

○​ Parse strings (from_string)​

○​ Apply defaults (margherita)​

○​ Choose subclasses​

○​ Do validations​

In short: __init__() always runs when an object is created, but factory methods control how
and when it’s called — and what arguments are passed in.

🧠 Think of it like this:

Factory methods don’t replace the constructor — they’re just a smarter way to call it.

#Static method=

it is normal function not having any connection with class or instance variable
class Laptop:
def __init__(self, price):
self.laptop_price = price
def discount(self,off_percent):
return self.laptop_price-(off_percent*self.laptop_price)/100
@staticmethod #if we want any independent function then we use this method
def hello():
print('static method')
p1=Laptop(800)
print(p1.discount(20))
p1.hello()
O/p=640

Static Method

#Encapsulation=

class Phone:
def __init__(self, brand, model, price):
self.brand_name = brand
self.model_name = model
self.model_price = price
def make_call(self , phone_no):
print(f'calling {phone_no}')
def full_name(self):
return self.brand_name + self.model_name
defining variable and their method under the same function is known as encapsulation

#abstraction-

Hiding complexity from user

we apply methods on list eg=sort,min

but we don't know the code written for it is same abstraction

#Special Naming convention=

1.if we define instance variable as self._model_price=price

_ means informing other that it is private variable and don't alter it

#name Mangling=

class Phone:
def __init__(self, brand, model, price):
self.brand_name = brand
self.model_name = model
self.model_price = price
def make_call(self , phone_no)
print(f'calling {phone_no}')
def full_name(self):
return self.brand_name + self.model_name

if we define object of above class and pass price as negative value,but phone price can't be negatives
so that is drawback

soln=
if price>0:

self.model_price = price

else:

self.model_price=0

when user enter neg value price will become 0

or

self.model_price=max(price,0)

2.

class Phone:
def __init__(self, brand, model, price):
self.brand_name = brand
self.model_name = model
self.model_price = max(price, 0)
 self.complete=f'{self.model_name} {self.brand_name} and {self.model_price}'

def make_call(self, phone_no):

print(f'calling {phone_no}')

def full_name(self):
return self.brand_name + self.model_name

p1=Phone('Del','Graphic',100)
print(p1.model_price)
p1.model_price=200 #we changed the price of model
print(p1.complete)
o/p=

100

Graphic Del and 100-but the output doesn't show the updated value

so rather than defining it as instance variable

we define price as method

class Phone:
def __init__(self, brand, model, price):
self.brand_name = brand
self.model_name = model
self.model_price = max(price, 0)
# self.complete=
def complete(self):
return f'{self.model_name} {self.brand_name} and {self.model_price}'

def make_call(self, phone_no):

print(f'calling {phone_no}')

def full_name(self):
return self.brand_name + self.model_name
p1=Phone('Del','Graphic',100)
p1.model_price=200
print(p1.complete()) #complete is method so called as complete()

so if we want to define it as instance variable we can do by property decorator

@property
def complete(self):

return f'{self.model_name} {self.brand_name} and {self.model_price}'

3.In 1st problem we were updating the price after object is defined,but it is not informed that we
have to upload a pos value,user can put neg value
p1=Phone('Del','Graphic',100)
p1.model_price=-200

soln==

@property

def price(self):

return self.model_price

@price.setter

def price(self,new_price):

self.model_price=max(new_price,0)

#Inheritance

class Phone:
def __init__(self, brand, model, price):
self.brand_name = brand
self.model_name = model
self.model_price = max(price, 0)

def make_call(self, phone_no):

print(f'calling {phone_no}')

def full_name(self):
return self.brand_name + self.model_name

+
class Smartphone:
def __init__(self, brand, model, price,ram,camera):
self.brand_name = brand
self.model_name = model
self.model_price = max(price, 0)
self.mob_ram=ram
self.mob_camera=camera

def make_call(self, phone_no):

print(f'calling {phone_no}')

def full_name(self):
return self.brand_name + self.model_name

Here we have defined to class Phone and Smartphone

Smart phone class has some features of class phone

but we have repeatedly defined in smartphone class

p1=Phone('nokia','lates',100)
p2=Smartphone('nokia','lates',100,1024,52)
print(p1.model_price)
print(p2.model_price)

Soln=

Inherit class phone in class Smartphone class

class Smartphone(Phone):​
def __init__(self, brand, model, price,ram,camera):​
super().__init__( brand, model, price)​
self.mob_ram=ram​
self.mob_camera=camera

1.Can we inherit multiple class from base class-yes

as we have inherited class phone in smartphone
we can inherit base class phone again in another class

#Muti heritance=

we have derived smartphone class from phone class

now we will derived another class from smartphone class is known as multi inheritance

Phone->Smartphone

Smartphone->Iphon

class Iphone(Smartphone):
def __init__(self, brand, model, price,ram,camera,front_cam):
super().__init__(self, brand, model, price,ram,camera)
self.front_cam=front_cam

class Phone:
def __init__(self, brand, model, price):
self.brand_name = brand
self.model_name = model
self.model_price = price

def make_call(self, phone_no):

print(f'calling {phone_no}')

def full_name(self):
return self.brand_name + self.model_name

class Smartphone(Phone):
def __init__(self, brand, model, price,ram,camera):
super().__init__(brand, model,price)
self.mob_ram=ram
self.mob_camera=camera
class Iphone(Smartphone):
def __init__(self, brand, model, price,ram,camera,front_cam):
super().__init__(brand, model, price,ram,camera)
self.front_cam=front_cam
p1=Phone('nokia','lates',100)
p2=Smartphone('nokia','lates',100,1024,52)

#Method Resolution order=

p2=Smartphone('nokia','lates',100,1024,52)

print(help(Smartphone)) It gives the order of execution of methods

print(p2.model_price)

O/P=

class Smartphone(Phone)

| Smartphone(brand, model, price, ram, camera)

| Method resolution order:

| Smartphone

| Phone

| builtins.object

| Methods defined here:

| __init__(self, brand, model, price, ram, camera)

| Initialize self. See help(type(self)) for accurate signature.

| ----------------------------------------------------------------------

| Methods inherited from Phone:

| full_name(self)

| make_call(self, phone_no)

| ----------------------------------------------------------------------
| Data descriptors inherited from Phone:

| __dict__

| dictionary for instance variables (if defined)

| __weakref__

| list of weak references to the object (if defined)

None

100

#Method Overriding=

if we changed the method defined in the base class is known as method overriding

here we will change the full name method

class Iphone(Smartphone):
def __init__(self, brand, model, price,ram,camera,front_cam):
super().__init__(brand, model, price,ram,camera)
self.front_cam=front_cam

def full_name(self):# here we have again defined method full_name

return f'full name is {self.brand_name} + {self.model_name}'

p2=Iphone('nokia','lates',100,1024,52,6)
print(help(Smartphone))
print(p2.full_name())

#Isinstance=

It is used to check whether particular object belong to class or not

p2=Iphone('nokia','lates',100,1024,52,6)

print(isinstance(p2,Iphone))

O/P=True

#Issubclass=

To check inheritance
print(issubclass(Iphone,Phone))

O/P=True

#Dunder Method=

This is a special method that Python itself recognizes and uses automatically.”

So, Python doesn't just randomly run a method named new() —​

But it knows that __new__() is special and is supposed to be used when creating new objects.

🧠 Example:
When you write this:

s = MyStr("hello")

Python automatically looks for and calls:

1.​ __new__() — to create the object​

2.​ __init__() — to initialize it

it is method in which we have __method__

why cant we print object of class print(p1)

✅ 1. Yes, You Can Print an Object

class Person:

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name

p1 = Person("Alice")

print(p1)
❓What gets printed?
Output:

<__main__.Person object at 0x00000123456789AB>

So yes — Python does print something, but it looks like garbage. Why?

🤔 Why Does It Look Like That?

Because by default, Python doesn’t know how you want the object to look when printed.​
So it shows a technical string with:

●​ the class name (Person)​

●​ the memory address of the object​

🪄 How to Make It Look Nice? Use __str__

To control what print(p1) shows, define the __str__ method:

class Person:

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name

def __str__(self):

return f"My name is {self.name}"

p1 = Person("Alice")

print(p1)

✅ Output:
My name is Alice
repr

###Operator Overloading##

if we have to add 2 object of class Phone it gives error

to solve it
def __add__(self, other):
return self.model_name + other.model_name
p2=Phone('nokia','lates',100)
p3=Phone('Mi','Camera',100)

O/P=latesCamera
class Person:

def __init__(self,age):

self.p_age=age

def __add__(self, other):

return self.p_age + other.p_age

p1=Person(4)

p2=Person(5)

print(p1+p2) =9

print(p1.__add__(p2))=9

Operator Method Example Use

+ __add__ a + b

- __sub__ a - b
 * __mul__ a * b

/ __truediv a / b
__

== __eq__ a == b

< __lt__ a < b

####Polymorphism##

function which we can work with multiple class like length

+​
+​ operator can work with multiple variable types like str,int so such operator or function(length
function) is known as polymorphism

class Dog:

def speak(self):

return 'abc'

class Cat:

def speak(self):

return 'xyz'

def animal_sound(animal):

return animal.speak()

d=Dog()

c=Cat()

print(animal_sound(d))

print(animal_sound(c))

### __new__
in Python, when you create an object like this:

person = Person("Alice")

Two things happen under the hood:

1.​ __new__ is called first to create the object in memory.​

2.​ __init__ is called next to initialize that object with data.

Imagine you're building a house:

●​ __new__ is like the factory that builds the house structure (walls, roof, etc).​

●​ __init__ is like the decorator who paints, furnishes, and customizes it.​

If you don’t have a house yet, you can’t decorate it. So __new__ always comes before __init__.

🧪 Normal Object Creation

If you're building a regular class (like a Person or Car), you don’t usually need to worry about
__new__. Python handles it for you behind the scenes.

class Person:

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name

But if you're working with special materials (like frozen bricks), you must customize the factory
(__new__).

🧊 Why __new__ is Important for Immutable Things

Take the str type in Python. It’s immutable — meaning it can’t be changed once it's made.

So if you want to change the input (like uppercasing the text), you have to do it before the string is
created. That’s why you use __new__.
💡 Simple Example: Auto-uppercase String
class MyStr(str):

def __new__(cls, text):

text = text.upper() # change it BEFORE object is created

return super().__new__(cls, text)

word = MyStr("hello")

print(word) # HELLO

🧠 Think of this like asking the factory to build all houses with red bricks — it has to happen before
the house is even built.

File opening in Python

f.encoding to read emojis

1.TEXT FILES=

Open file=

f=open(‘file path’,mode of reading’)

mode of reading=

r=read mode-by default

w=write mode-when you have to write once,if you write once and then again try to write it will erase
earlier content in that file

a=append-when you have to write on file multiple time,if you write once and then again try to write
it will not erase earlier content in that file,it will write after the earlier content

Read File=

f=open()

print(f.read()) # also we can mention character count we want to read.f.read(100)

f.close
o/p=content of files

but if try again to print the content of files

it will not print bcz we have already read out the file and it reads the file on the basis of cursor so
once first read is complete cursor will be at the end of last line,so when second read is executed it
doesnt have anything to read,as cursor is at last line

We can print file content by iterating f

for i in f:

print(i)----It will print all line

TELL METHOD =

f.tell()=it gives cursor position

​
SEEK METHOD=

To change cursor position

f.seek(position of cursor)

Readline Method=

f.readline()-it read one line at a time

READLINES METHOD=

f.readlines()=it creates a list of all line in a single list

f.readlines()[:2]-it will print first 2 lines
TO get name of file=

f.name-it gives name of file

f.closed=to check whether file is closed or not

WITH OPEN=

it is used to open the file,its advantage is that we dont need to close the file
with open(‘file path’) as f:​
data=f.read
print(data)

####WRITING FILE ###

1.W
with open(r'C:\Users\tasks\downloads\abcd.txt','w') as f:
f.write('abcded')
f=open(r'C:\Users\tasks\downloads\abcd.txt','r')
m=f.read()
print(m)

O/P=
abcd
as we are using the write mode,it is erasing earlier content as overwriting only abcd

2.A
with open(r'C:\Users\tasks\downloads\abcd.txt','a') as f:
f.write('abcded')
f=open(r'C:\Users\tasks\downloads\abcd.txt','r')
m=f.read()
print(m)

write and append mode create a file if file is not created

3.r+

we can write and read the file

but this mode do not create file if it is not there

### COPY DATA OF ONE FILE TO ANOTHER FILE ###

###COPY DATA OF A FILE TO OTHER FILE

with open(r'C:\Users\tasks\downloads\abcd.txt','r') as f:
with open(r'C:\Users\tasks\desktop\new_file.txt','w') as new:
new.write(f.read())
l=open(r'C:\Users\tasks\desktop\new_file.txt','r')
z=l.read()
print(z)

###READING FILE BY PART​

here we will read 100 character at a time,and by this will read complete file
with open(r'C:\Users\tasks\downloads\abcd.txt','r') as f:
m=f.read(100)
while len(m)>0:
print(m)
m= f.read(100)

####CSV FILE####
CSV-comma separated value

# 1.Writing in CSV FILE

from csv import writer

with open(r'C:\Users\tasks\downloads\csv_file.txt','w') as f:
csv_writer=writer(f) #witer() is a iterator
#To method-1.writerow,writerows
csv_writer.writerow(['name','country'])
csv_writer.writerow(['harsh', 'India'])
csv_writer.writerow(['desh', 'India'])
# OR
csv_writer.writerows([['name', 'country'],['harsh', 'India'],['desh', 'India']])

#2.Reading CSV FILE

​

from csv import reader

with open(r'C:\Users\tasks\downloads\csv_file.txt','r') as f:
csv_reader = reader(f) # witer() is a iterator
for i in csv_reader:
print(i)

#3.Writing data from one file to another file

from csv import reader

from csv import writer
with open(r'C:\Users\tasks\downloads\csv_file.txt','r') as old_file:
with open(r'C:\Users\tasks\downloads\nw_csv_file.txt', 'w') as new_file:
csv_reader = reader(old_file)
for i in csv_reader:
csv_writer = writer(new_file)
csv_writer.writerow([i])
######OS MODULE ####
It is used for file and folder handling

Skip to content
__init__ is a special method in Python classes. It stands for "initialize" and is automatically called
when a new object of the class is created. It's used to set up the initial state of an object.

Syntax:
class MyClass:
def __init__(self, param1, param2):
self.param1 = param1
self.param2 = param2
Example:
class Dog:
def __init__(self, name, breed):
self.name = name
self.breed = breed

my_dog = Dog("Buddy", "Golden Retriever")

print(my_dog.name) # Output: Buddy
print(my_dog.breed) # Output: Golden Retriever
Key Points:
__init__ is like a constructor in other languages.

The first parameter is always self, which refers to the instance being created.

It doesn't return anything (shouldn't return anything except None).

Would you like an example with inheritance or default values?

You said:
class variable
ChatGPT said:
A class variable in Python is a variable that is shared across all instances of a class. It's defined inside
the class but outside any instance methods (like __init__).

🔁 Difference from Instance Variables:

Feature​Class Variable​ Instance Variable
Scope​ Shared across all instances​ Unique to each instance
Defined​Inside class, outside methods​ Usually inside __init__

✅
Modified by​ Class name or instance​ Only via instance
Example:
class Dog:
species = "Canis familiaris" # class variable

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name # instance variable

dog1 = Dog("Buddy")
dog2 = Dog("Max")

print(dog1.species) # Output: Canis familiaris

print(dog2.species) # Output: Canis familiaris

# Change class variable

Dog.species = "Canis lupus familiaris"

print(dog1.species) # Output: Canis lupus familiaris

⚠️
print(dog2.species) # Output: Canis lupus familiaris
Modifying Class Variable via Instance:
dog1.species = "Wolf" # This creates a new instance variable, doesn't change the class variable

print(dog1.species) # Wolf (instance-level override)

print(dog2.species) # Canis lupus familiaris
print(Dog.species) # Canis lupus familiaris
Let me know if you want an example involving class methods or class variables used as counters or
defaults.

You said:
advantage of class variable over instance variable?
ChatGPT said:
Class variables offer several advantages over instance variables—mainly when shared data or
behavior is needed across all instances of a class.

✅ Advantages of Class Variables Over Instance Variables

1. Shared Data Across Instances
A class variable is shared by all instances, saving memory and ensuring consistency.

Example:

class Car:
wheels = 4 # same for all cars

def __init__(self, color):

self.color = color

c1 = Car("Red")
c2 = Car("Blue")

🔹
print(c1.wheels, c2.wheels) # both show 4
If you used instance variables for wheels, you’d have to set it for every object separately.

2. Centralized Configuration
Changing the class variable affects all existing and future instances (unless overridden), making it
easy to update shared behavior or constants.

Example:

class AppConfig:
debug = True

# Toggling debug mode globally

AppConfig.debug = False
3. Use as a Counter or Tracker
Class variables can track how many instances have been created or perform similar "global"
functions.

Example:

class User:
count = 0

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name
User.count += 1

u1 = User("Alice")
u2 = User("Bob")
print(User.count) # Output: 2
4. Better Memory Usage
Since the variable is stored at the class level, it uses less memory compared to storing the same value
in every instance.
📌 When to Use Class Variables:
Use a class variable when:

The data is shared across all instances.

You need a global counter, configuration flag, or a constant.

You want to avoid duplication of common values.

Let me know if you’d like a comparison chart or a scenario-based example.

🔹
You said:
If you used instance variables for `wheels`, you’d have to set it for every object separately.

a
ChatGPT said:
Great — let’s break that point down with a concrete example to show why using an instance variable
for something like wheels would be less efficient compared to a class variable.

🆚 Instance Variable Version:

class Car:
def __init__(self, color):
self.color = color
self.wheels = 4 # instance variable

c1 = Car("Red")
c2 = Car("Blue")

print(c1.wheels) # 4

🔻
print(c2.wheels) # 4
Disadvantage:

Each car object stores its own copy of wheels = 4, even though it’s always the same.

This wastes memory if you have hundreds or thousands of objects.

✅ Class Variable Version:

class Car:
wheels = 4 # class variable

def __init__(self, color):

self.color = color

c1 = Car("Red")
c2 = Car("Blue")

print(c1.wheels) # 4 (inherited from class)

🔹
print(c2.wheels) # 4
Advantage:
wheels is stored once at the class level and shared across all instances.

Saves memory and simplifies updates. For example:

Car.wheels = 6 # Change globally

print(c1.wheels) # 6

✅
print(c2.wheels) # 6
Summary:
Use a class variable like wheels when:

The value is common across all objects.

You don’t need per-object customization.

You want easier and more centralized updates.

Would you like to see how this works in a real-world example like bank accounts, students, or a game
character system?

You said:
class person:
cir_pi=3
def __init__(self, name, age):
# print('init')
self.personage=age
self.detailname=name
self.add=age
# self.cir_pi=pi
def info(self, income):
return income*self.personage

def circum(self):
return 2*person.cir_pi*self.personage

p1=person('kalp', 5)
p2=person('desh',10) , when i change p1,circ_pi=3, it changes variable value, but doesnt reflect in
circum method
ChatGPT said:
Got it! Let's carefully look at your code and the behavior you're describing.

Your code:
class person:
cir_pi = 3 # class variable

def __init__(self, name, age):

self.personage = age
self.detailname = name
self.add = age

def info(self, income):

return income * self.personage
 def circum(self):
return 2 * person.cir_pi * self.personage

p1 = person('kalp', 5)
p2 = person('desh', 10)
What you observed:
When you change p1.cir_pi = 3, it changes the variable value but doesn't affect the circum method.

Explanation:
person.cir_pi is a class variable shared by all instances.

When you do:

p1.cir_pi = 3
You are creating a new instance variable named cir_pi only for p1, which shadows (hides) the class
variable person.cir_pi for p1.

But inside circum, you wrote:

return 2 * person.cir_pi * self.personage

Here, you directly reference the class variable (person.cir_pi) — so it will not see p1’s instance
variable cir_pi.

How to fix this?

To let the method use the instance’s own cir_pi if it exists, or fallback to the class variable, use:

def circum(self):
return 2 * self.cir_pi * self.personage
This way, Python looks for cir_pi in the instance first, then falls back to the class variable if not found.

Example to test:
class person:
cir_pi = 3

def __init__(self, name, age):

self.personage = age
self.detailname = name
self.add = age

def info(self, income):

return income * self.personage

def circum(self):
return 2 * self.cir_pi * self.personage

p1 = person('kalp', 5)
p2 = person('desh', 10)

print(p1.circum()) # 2 * 3 * 5 = 30
print(p2.circum()) # 2 * 3 * 10 = 60
p1.cir_pi = 5 # Instance variable shadows class variable for p1 only

print(p1.circum()) # 2 * 5 * 5 = 50
print(p2.circum()) # Still 60, because p2 uses class variable
Summary:
Accessing person.cir_pi inside a method always uses the class variable.

Accessing self.cir_pi lets you use the instance variable if it exists, otherwise class variable.

Assigning p1.cir_pi = ... creates an instance variable, it does not modify the class variable.

Let me know if you want me to help refactor your class or add more examples!

You said:
so how variable preference work?
ChatGPT said:
Great question! In Python, variable preference (also known as attribute lookup order) determines
how Python decides whether to use an instance variable or a class variable when you access
something like self.x.

🔍 Variable Lookup Order (Preference)

When you do:

self.some_variable
Python searches in this exact order:

Instance attributes → self.__dict__

Class attributes → self.__class__.__dict__

Parent classes, if any (in method resolution order)

🧠 Rule of Thumb:
Instance variables override class variables with the same name.

🔁 Example:
class MyClass:
x = 10 # class variable

def __init__(self):
self.y = 20 # instance variable

obj = MyClass()
print(obj.x) # Looks in instance → not found → falls back to class → 10
print(obj.y) # Found in instance → 20
Now watch what happens:

obj.x = 100 # Creates an instance variable 'x', does NOT change class variable
print(obj.x) # 100 (instance variable takes priority)
print(MyClass.x) # Still 10
🧪 Confirming the Lookup:
print(obj.__dict__) # {'y': 20, 'x': 100}

💡
print(MyClass.__dict__) # class variables & methods, including 'x': 10
Variable Assignment Creates Instance Variable:
When you do obj.x = 100, you're not changing the class variable. You're creating a new variable in the
instance, which shadows the class variable.

✅ Best Practice:
Always be intentional:

Use class variables for shared constants or state.

Use instance variables for unique data.

In methods, access with self.x unless you specifically mean the class variable, in which case use
ClassName.x.

Would you like a diagram or visualization of how Python searches through these layers?

You said:
class method
ChatGPT said:
A class method in Python is a method that's bound to the class and not the instance. It takes the
class itself as its first argument (conventionally named cls) and is defined using the @classmethod
decorator.

🧱 Syntax:
class MyClass:
@classmethod
def my_class_method(cls, args):
# logic using cls

✅ pass
Key Points:
Feature​Class Method
First argument​ cls (the class, not the instance)
Decorator​ @classmethod
Access​ Can be called via class or instance

🔁
Use case​ Modify class state or create factory methods
Difference from @staticmethod and Instance Method:
Type​ First Param​
✅ ✅
Can access instance?​ Can access class?​

❌
Use Case

❌ ✅
Instance Method​ self​ ​ ​ Regular method on instance
Class Method​ cls​

🧪
Static Method​ None​
Example:
❌ ​
​
​
​
Factory methods, class-level logic
Utility function, no class or object

class Person:
count = 0

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name
Person.count += 1
 @classmethod
def get_count(cls):
return cls.count

p1 = Person("Alice")
p2 = Person("Bob")

print(Person.get_count()) # 2

🏭
print(p1.get_count()) # 2 — can be called via instance too
Factory Method Example:
class Employee:
def __init__(self, name, role):
self.name = name
self.role = role

@classmethod
def from_string(cls, emp_str):
name, role = emp_str.split("-")
return cls(name, role)

emp1 = Employee.from_string("Alice-Manager")
print(emp1.name) # Alice

📌
print(emp1.role) # Manager
When to Use @classmethod:
You need to work with class-level data (cls.count, cls.config, etc.).

You want to provide alternative constructors (e.g. from_string, from_json).

You want logic that should affect the entire class, not just one instance.

Let me know if you'd like a comparison with @staticmethod or need a real-world use case!

You said:
didnt understood why it is requied?
ChatGPT said:
Great question — and you're not alone. Many people wonder:

"Why even use @classmethod? Can't I just use regular methods or static methods?"

Let’s break this down in simple terms.

🔍 Why Use @classmethod?

Because sometimes, you want a method that:

Doesn't act on a single object (instance),

But does need access to the class itself,

For example: to access or modify class variables, or create new objects.

✅ 1. Accessing or Modifying Class-Level Data

Suppose you're tracking how many people were created:

class Person:
count = 0 # class variable

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name
Person.count += 1

@classmethod
def get_count(cls): # notice: cls, not self
return cls.count
You can't use an instance method here because:

The method isn’t tied to any one person,

But it still needs access to the class variable count.

✅ 2. Alternative Constructors (Factory Methods)

Sometimes, you want to create objects in a different way than the default constructor.

class User:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

@classmethod
def from_string(cls, data_str):
name, age = data_str.split("-")
return cls(name, int(age))

u = User.from_string("Alice-30")
Why not use a regular function?

Because cls makes it work even if you later subclass User.

So the correct class is always used, even in inheritance scenarios.

✅ 3. Inheritance-Friendly Logic
If Admin inherits from User, and User.from_string() uses cls, it will return an Admin object, not a User,
when called from Admin.

class Admin(User):
pass

a = Admin.from_string("Bob-40")
print(type(a)) # <class '__main__.Admin'>
This works because of cls — it knows to construct an Admin, not just a User.

❌ Why Not Just Use @staticmethod?

Because a staticmethod:
Can't access class (cls) or instance (self),

It’s just like a plain function inside a class.

You use @staticmethod only when you don’t care about the object or class at all — it's just for
organization.

🧠 Summary (When to Use What):

Use case​ Use this
Needs access to instance (self)​ Instance method
Needs access to class (cls)​ Class method
Needs neither (just a utility method)​ Static method
Would you like me to show a real-world example (like a game, employee system, or e-commerce)?
That often helps it click.

You said:
yes
ChatGPT said:
Perfect — let's go through a real-world example that shows why and when @classmethod is useful.
We'll use a shopping system (e-commerce) example to make it relatable.

🛒 Real-World Example: E-commerce Product Class

Suppose you’re building an app that manages products in a store. Each product has a name and
price.

🔹 Basic Version (with __init__):

class Product:
def __init__(self, name, price):
self.name = name
self.price = price
Great. But now imagine this:

You're getting product data as strings from a file or an API.

Example: "Laptop,999.99" or "Shoes,49.95"

How do you create a Product from that?

🧭 Option 1: Use a classmethod to act as a factory

class Product:
def __init__(self, name, price):
self.name = name
self.price = price

@classmethod
def from_string(cls, product_str):
name, price = product_str.split(",")

✅ return cls(name, float(price))

Now you can do:
p1 = Product.from_string("Laptop,999.99")
print(p1.name) # Laptop

🔍
print(p1.price) # 999.99
Why not just write a function outside the class?
Because:

cls() ensures it works with subclasses too.

You keep the logic close to the class it belongs to.

It’s easier to test, reuse, and extend.

🧰 Adding a Discount System (Class-Level Feature)

Suppose all products have a common discount rate, like 10%.

class Product:
discount = 0.1 # 10% discount

def __init__(self, name, price):

self.name = name
self.price = price

def final_price(self):
return self.price * (1 - Product.discount)

@classmethod
def set_discount(cls, new_discount):

✅ cls.discount = new_discount
Now you can update the discount for all products:

Product.set_discount(0.2) # 20% discount for everyone

Summary of What We Used:
Feature​Why It Helps
@classmethod from_string​ Lets you create objects from a string easily
@classmethod set_discount​ Modifies a class-level variable (for all items)

🔄
cls​ Makes methods work with subclasses too
Bonus: Subclass Example
class DigitalProduct(Product):
def download(self):
print(f"Downloading {self.name}")

dp = DigitalProduct.from_string("Ebook,19.99")

✅
dp.download() # Works, because from_string returns a DigitalProduct
Thanks to cls(), the from_string() method still works correctly with DigitalProduct.

Would you like a similar example in a different domain — like games (characters), education
(students), or banking (accounts)?

You said:
class Product:
discount = 0.1 # 10% discount
 def __init__(self, name, price):
self.name = name
self.price = price

def final_price(self):
return self.price * (1 - Product.discount)

@classmethod
def set_discount(cls, new_discount):
cls.discount = new_discount .didnt understand
ChatGPT said:
No problem — let’s break it down clearly and step-by-step so you understand exactly what’s
happening in your Product class.

🧱 Your Code:
class Product:
discount = 0.1 # class variable: 10% discount

def __init__(self, name, price):

self.name = name
self.price = price

def final_price(self):
return self.price * (1 - Product.discount)

@classmethod
def set_discount(cls, new_discount):

🔍 cls.discount = new_discount
What’s Going On?
1. discount = 0.1
This is a class variable, shared by all products.

It means every product gets 10% discount by default.

2. final_price() Method
This method calculates the discounted price:

return self.price * (1 - Product.discount)

If price = 100, and discount = 0.1 (10%), then:

final_price = 100 * (1 - 0.1) = 100 * 0.9 = 90.0

So this method always applies the current class-level discount.

3. @classmethod set_discount(cls, new_discount)

This is the key part you asked about. It allows us to change the class variable discount for all
products.

Product.set_discount(0.2) # Change discount to 20%

Here’s what happens:
cls refers to the class (Product, in this case).

So cls.discount = new_discount updates the class variable.

All instances will now use the new discount.

✅ Example: How It Works

p1 = Product("Laptop", 1000)
print(p1.final_price()) # 1000 * 0.9 = 900.0

Product.set_discount(0.2) # Change discount to 20%

p2 = Product("Phone", 500)
print(p2.final_price()) # 500 * 0.8 = 400.0

📌
print(p1.final_price()) # 1000 * 0.8 = 800.0 → uses updated discount!
Even the old object (p1) reflects the new discount — because both p1 and p2 use the class
variable discount, not their own.

🔁 Why Use a @classmethod for This?

You need to modify class-level data (discount).

You don’t want to do Product.discount = 0.2 directly — better to use a method.

It keeps the logic encapsulated and clear.

📌 Summary:
cls.discount = new_discount updates the shared class variable.

All Product objects (old and new) use the updated value.

This is why we use @classmethod — to work at the class level, not just per object.

Want me to add per-product (instance-specific) discounts next to show the difference?

You said:
we can use class variable to change discunt?
ChatGPT said:
Yes — you absolutely can use a class variable to change the discount for all products. In fact, that’s
exactly what your code is doing!

Let’s clarify your question and explain both how and why.

✅ Yes, You Can Use a Class Variable to Change the Discount

In your code:

class Product:
discount = 0.1 # ✅This is a class variable
This means all products share this discount, unless it's overridden.

You can update it directly like this:

Product.discount = 0.2 # Changes discount to 20% for all products
Or, you can update it indirectly using a @classmethod:

Product.set_discount(0.2)
This is just a more controlled way of doing the same thing.

🔁
🧾 Direct vs Class Method Update
Method 1: Direct Update
Product.discount = 0.2 # Changes the class variable directly
Works fine — but it spreads logic outside the class.

🧾 Method 2: Using a Class Method

@classmethod
def set_discount(cls, new_discount):
cls.discount = new_discount
Then call:

✅
Product.set_discount(0.2)
Same result, but better practice, because:

It keeps the logic encapsulated in the class.

You can add validation or logging later without changing code elsewhere.

🔍 Important: What Happens Inside final_price()

def final_price(self):
return self.price * (1 - Product.discount)
This uses the class variable, not an instance variable.

If Product.discount changes, the discount changes for all products, old and new.

🔬 Example That Shows It Clearly:

class Product:
discount = 0.1

def __init__(self, name, price):

self.name = name
self.price = price

def final_price(self):
return self.price * (1 - Product.discount)

@classmethod
def set_discount(cls, new_discount):
cls.discount = new_discount

p1 = Product("Laptop", 1000)
print(p1.final_price()) # 900.0

Product.set_discount(0.2) # Change class variable through method

🧠
print(p1.final_price()) # 800.0 — updated!

✅ Final Summary:
Yes, class variables are meant for things like shared discount.

You can change it:

Directly: Product.discount = 0.2

Or via a class method: Product.set_discount(0.2)

All objects reflect the updated value unless you override it per instance.

Would you like to see how to make per-product (instance-specific) discounts too?

You said:
how to answer what is class method in int?
ChatGPT said:
Great question!

If someone asks you "What is a class method?" in an interview (int), you should aim to give:

✅ A clear definition
🧠 An explanation of why it’s useful
📦 A simple example (if they ask for it or time permits)
✅ Sample Interview Answer (Simple and Clear):
"A class method is a method that's bound to the class, not the instance. It takes cls as its first
parameter and is defined using the @classmethod decorator.

It can access and modify class-level data that is shared among all instances. Class methods are
commonly used for factory methods or to update class variables."**

🧠 If Asked: “Why Use It Instead of a Regular Method?”

You can say:

"We use a class method when we want to do something that affects the class as a whole, not just
one instance. For example, updating a shared discount rate, or creating an object from a different
format (like from a string or JSON)."

📦 If They Ask for a Code Example:

class Product:
discount = 0.1 # class variable

def __init__(self, name, price):

self.name = name
self.price = price

@classmethod
def set_discount(cls, new_discount):
 cls.discount = new_discount
You can add:

"Here, set_discount is a class method used to change the discount for all products. Since it uses cls, it
can modify class-level data."

🔚 Quick Summary Line (if you need to wrap up fast):

"In short, a class method is used when we want a method to operate on the class itself instead of
individual instances."

You said:
polymorphism

🔁
ChatGPT said:

✅ Polymorphism in Python – Explained Simply

Definition:
Polymorphism means "many forms". In object-oriented programming, it refers to the ability to use
the same method name or function interface to work with different types (classes) of objects.

🔍 Why it matters:
Makes your code more flexible and extensible

Promotes reusability and clean design

🔧 Python Example: Polymorphism with Methods

class Dog:
def speak(self):
return "Woof"

class Cat:
def speak(self):
return "Meow"

# Polymorphic behavior
def animal_sound(animal):
return animal.speak()

d = Dog()
c = Cat()

print(animal_sound(d)) # Woof

💡
print(animal_sound(c)) # Meow
Even though Dog and Cat are different classes, they both have a speak() method. The
animal_sound() function works polymorphically with any object that has a speak() method.

🧱 Polymorphism with Inheritance (Method Overriding)

class Person:
def work(self):
print("Person works")

class Engineer(Person):
 def work(self):
print("Engineer develops software")

class Doctor(Person):
def work(self):
print("Doctor treats patients")

people = [Engineer(), Doctor(), Person()]

for p in people:

📌 p.work()
Each object overrides the work() method to behave differently, even though the method name is
the same.

🔁 Types of Polymorphism:
Type​ Meaning
Compile-time (Overloading)​ Not directly supported in Python
Run-time (Overriding)​ Supported via inheritance & super()

🧠
Duck typing​ Pythonic style: "If it walks like a duck..."
Duck Typing in Python (Informal Polymorphism):
class File:
def read(self):
print("Reading from file")

class Network:
def read(self):
print("Reading from network")

def read_source(source):
source.read()

read_source(File())

✅
read_source(Network())
No need for inheritance — if the object has a read() method, it works. That’s Python's duck
typing style of polymorphism.

📝 Summary:
Polymorphism = Same interface, different behavior

Achieved through:

Method overriding (subclasses)

Duck typing (Python’s dynamic nature)

Helps write generic, reusable, and flexible code

Would you like a real-world example (e.g. payments, shapes, or game characters)?

You said:
class Dog:
 def speak(self):
return "Woof"

class Cat:
def speak(self):
return "Meow"

# Polymorphic behavior
def animal_sound(animal):
return animal.speak()

d = Dog()
c = Cat()

print(animal_sound(d)) # Woof
print(animal_sound(c)) # Meow , def __init__ , is this not compulsory?
ChatGPT said:
Great question — and you're thinking in the right direction! Let’s address it directly:

❓ Is __init__() compulsory in every class?

No, __init__() is not compulsory in a Python class.

✅ Why?
Because Python only requires __init__() if you need to initialize (set up) data when the object is
created.

👇 In Your Example:
class Dog:
def speak(self):
return "Woof"

class Cat:
def speak(self):
return "Meow"
There’s no __init__(), and that’s totally fine — because you’re not storing any attributes like name,
age, etc. You're just defining a behavior (speak()), and that doesn't need setup.

🧠 When Do You Use __init__()?

You use __init__() when you want to store object-specific data:

class Dog:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name

def speak(self):
return f"{self.name} says Woof"
Now, you must pass a name:

d = Dog("Bruno")

✅
print(d.speak()) # Bruno says Woof
Summary:
Situation​ Do you need __init__()?
Only defining methods (like speak)​
Need to store data (like name, age)​
❌
✅ No
Yes
So in your original example, __init__() is not needed. You’ve done it exactly right for a polymorphism
demo.

Want me to show how polymorphism works with __init__() and stored data too?

You said:
multilevel inheritance and multiple inheritance
ChatGPT said:
Great! Let’s explore both multilevel inheritance and multiple inheritance in Python — with clear
definitions, examples, and how they differ.

🧬
🔍 1. Multilevel Inheritance
Definition:
Multilevel inheritance means that a class is derived from a child class, which is itself derived from
another class.

📚 Think: Grandparent → Parent → Child

✅ Example:
class Animal: # Base class
def sound(self):
print("Animals make sounds")

class Dog(Animal): # Child of Animal

def bark(self):
print("Dog barks")

class Puppy(Dog): # Child of Dog (grandchild of Animal)

def weep(self):
print("Puppy weeps")

p = Puppy()
p.sound() # From Animal
p.bark() # From Dog

✅
p.weep() # From Puppy
Puppy inherits from Dog, and Dog inherits from Animal. So Puppy gets access to everything up
the chain.

🤹
🔍 2.Definition:
Multiple Inheritance

Multiple inheritance means that a class inherits from more than one parent class.

📚 Think: Child ← Parent1 + Parent2

✅ Example:
class Father:
def skills(self):
print("Can fix cars")
class Mother:
def skills(self):
print("Can cook")

class Child(Father, Mother): # Inherits from both

def own_skills(self):
print("Can code")

c = Child()

c.skills()
Output:
#❓
c.own_skills() # From Child

🔄 From which parent?

Can code

✅
Can fix cars # From Father (first in inheritance list)
Python uses Method Resolution Order (MRO): it looks left to right, so Father comes first.

🔁 Difference Between Them:

Feature​Multilevel Inheritance​ Multiple Inheritance
Inheritance style​ Chain (A → B → C)​ Combines multiple parents (A + B → C)
Hierarchy depth​Vertical​Horizontal
Common use​ Specializing step-by-step​ Mixing unrelated behaviors or features

💡
Conflict possibility​
Summary:
Term​ Meaning
Low​ High (same method in both parents → MRO used)

Multilevel​ One class inherits from another, which inherits from another (3+ levels)
Multiple​ One class inherits from two or more parent classes
Would you like an example combining both types (called hybrid inheritance)?

You said:
private,public and protected variable
ChatGPT said:
Great — let’s clearly explain public, protected, and private variables in Python, including how they
work and how to use them properly.

🔓
✅ 1. Public Variables (name)
Meaning:
Can be accessed anywhere — inside or outside the class.

Default behavior in Python.

class Person:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name # public

🛡️
print(p.name) # ✅
p = Person("Kalp")
Accessible

✅ 2. Protected Variables (_name)

Meaning:
Meant to be used inside the class or its subclasses.
Not enforced by Python — it's a convention, not a rule.

Indicated by a single underscore _

class Person:
def __init__(self, name):
self._name = name # protected

class Student(Person):
def show_name(self):
return self._name # ✅ Allowed in subclass
🔒
print(s._name) # ⚠️
s = Student("Desh")
Still accessible — but discouraged

✅ 3. Private Variables (__name)

Meaning:
Cannot be accessed directly outside the class.

Python does name mangling to protect the variable (makes it _ClassName__var internally).

class Person:
def __init__(self, name):
self.__name = name # private

def get_name(self):
✅ Allowed inside the class
return self.__name #

print(p.get_name()) # ✅ OK
p = Person("Harshal")

# print(p.__name) # ❌ AttributeError

print(p._Person__name) #
Summary Table:
✅
# Can still access with name mangling (not recommended)

📌 But hacky

Public​ self.name​ ✅ ⚠️
Access Level​ Syntax​ Access from outside?​ Purpose
Yes​ Normal use, open access
Protected​

🧠
Private​ self.__name​
Interview Tip:
❌
self._name​ Yes (by convention)​ Intended for subclasses
No (name-mangled)​Internal use only (secure)

"In Python, access control is not enforced like in Java or C++. Instead, we follow naming conventions:
_var for protected and __var for private. Python trusts the developer to follow these."

Let me know if you want a real-life example using all three!

You said:
exception handling

⚠️
ChatGPT said:

✅ Exception Handling in Python — Explained Simply

What Is Exception Handling?
Exception handling is a way to gracefully handle errors that occur during program execution so your
program doesn’t crash.
Python uses:

try:
# code that might cause an error
except:

💥 # what to do if an error happens

Common Exceptions:
Error Type​ Meaning
ZeroDivisionError​ Dividing by zero
ValueError​ Wrong data type or format
TypeError​ Wrong type used in operation
FileNotFoundError​ File doesn’t exist

📦
IndexError​

try:
Accessing invalid list index
Basic Example:

x = 10 / 0
except ZeroDivisionError:

🟢 print("You cannot divide by zero.")

Output:

🔄
You cannot divide by zero.

try:
Full Syntax Structure:

# risky code
except SomeError:
# handle specific error
else:
# if no error, run this
finally:

✅ # always runs (clean-up)

try:
Example With else and finally:

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

except ValueError:
print("Invalid number!")
else:
print("You entered:", num)
finally:

🎯 print("This always runs.")

try:
Catching Multiple Exceptions:

a = int("abc") # causes ValueError

except (ValueError, TypeError) as e:

🛠️ print("Error:", e)
Custom Exception Example:
class MyError(Exception):
pass

try:
raise MyError("Something custom went wrong")
except MyError as e:

🧠 print("Caught:", e)
Interview Tip:
“Python uses try...except blocks for error handling. You can catch specific exceptions, add an else for
success, and a finally block that runs no matter what — useful for clean-up like closing files or
database connections.”

Would you like a real-world example (e.g., file reading or user input)?

You said:
yes
ChatGPT said:
Great! Let's look at two real-world examples of exception handling:

📁 Example 1: File Reading with Exception Handling

Suppose you're trying to read a file uploaded by the user:

try:
file = open("data.txt", "r")
content = file.read()
print("File content:", content)
except FileNotFoundError:
print("Error: The file was not found.")
except PermissionError:
print("Error: You don’t have permission to read the file.")
finally:

🟢 print("Done trying to read the file.")

Output (if file doesn't exist):
Error: The file was not found.

💡
Done trying to read the file.
finally block is often used for clean-up (like closing a file or database connection).

🙋‍♂️ Example 2: Taking User Input Safely

You want the user to enter a number. You don’t want your program to crash if they enter text.

try:
number = int(input("Enter a number: "))
except ValueError:
print("That's not a valid number.")
else:
print("The square is:", number ** 2)
finally:

🔄✅
5→
print("End of program.")
Try This Input:
Works fine

"hello" → ❌ Shows error message but doesn't crash

🧠 Key Learnings:
Use try...except to avoid crashes on bad input or missing files.
Use else if you want to run something only when no error occurs.

Use finally for clean-up actions that must always run.

Would you like an example with custom exceptions or in another domain (like banking or login
system)?

You said:
what happen when we run python file
ChatGPT said:
Great question! Let’s walk through what happens when you run a Python file, step by step.

🧠 When You Run a Python File (e.g. python myfile.py):

Python goes through the following steps:

1. Interpreter Starts
The Python interpreter (python) is launched.

It reads the file from top to bottom.

2. Compiles to Bytecode
Python compiles your .py file into bytecode — a low-level representation of your code (not machine
code yet).

This bytecode is stored in memory or optionally in .pyc files (inside a __pycache__ folder).

💡 Example: myfile.py → myfile.cpython-311.pyc

3. Executes Line by Line
Python executes the bytecode line by line using the Python Virtual Machine (PVM).

If it hits a function or class definition, it loads it but doesn’t run it until called.

If it finds a statement like print(), it runs it immediately.

4. Runs Code in if __name__ == "__main__" Block

If the file is being run directly, Python executes code inside this block:

if __name__ == "__main__":
main()
If the file is imported, this block is skipped.

5. Handles Errors
If an exception occurs, Python stops unless it’s handled by a try...except block.

⚙️ Summary Diagram:
[Your .py file]
↓
[Python Interpreter]
↓
[Bytecode Compilation]
 ↓
[Python Virtual Machine (PVM)]
↓

✅
[Code Execution: line by line]
Example:
def greet():
print("Hello!")

print("Start")
greet()
print("End")
Output:
Start
Hello!
End
Python:

Reads top to bottom

Defines greet() (but doesn’t run it)

Executes print("Start")

Calls greet() → runs its print

Prints End

Would you like to see what happens internally in memory (how variables/functions are stored)?

You said:
if __name__ == "__main__":
main() , explain
ChatGPT said:
Absolutely — this line is very important in Python scripts and is commonly seen at the bottom of
Python files:

if __name__ == "__main__":
main()
Let’s break it down so you understand what it means, why it’s used, and how it works.

✅ What does it mean?

__name__ is a special built-in variable in Python.

When a Python file is:

run directly (like python myfile.py), then __name__ == "__main__" is True.

imported into another file, __name__ becomes the name of the file (like 'myfile').

So this line means:

“Only run the main() function if this file is being run directly, not if it's being imported.”

🔧 Example:
file1.py:
def main():
print("Hello from file1")

if __name__ == "__main__":
main()
Running file1.py:

✅
$ python file1.py
Output:

Hello from file1

Now create another file:
file2.py:
import file1
print("Hello from file2")
Running file2.py:

✅
$ python file2.py
Output:

Hello from file2

(You won’t see "Hello from file1" — because file1 was imported, not run directly.)

🧠 Why is this useful?

Prevents code from running automatically when imported.

Keeps logic clean and modular.

Makes it easy to reuse functions or classes from one file in another without executing unwanted
code.

🔄 What’s main()?
It’s just a function name (convention).

You could write anything like:

def start():
print("Running...")

if __name__ == "__main__":

📝 start()
Summary
Element​ Meaning
__name__​ Built-in variable, set by Python
__name__ == "__main__"​ True only if file is run directly
main()​ Your starting function (convention)
Would you like a visual example of how it works with multiple files?

You said:
decorator
ChatGPT said:
Great — let's break down decorators in Python in a clear and simple way.

🎯 What Is a Decorator?
A decorator is a function that takes another function as input and adds extra functionality to it —
without changing the original function’s code.

✅
In short:
They let you "wrap" a function to extend its behavior.

🔧 Basic Decorator Example:

def my_decorator(func):
def wrapper():
print("Before function runs")
func()
print("After function runs")
return wrapper

@my_decorator
def greet():
print("Hello!")

🟢
greet()
Output:
Before function runs
Hello!

🔍
After function runs
What's Happening?
This line:

@my_decorator
def greet():
...
is the same as:

greet = my_decorator(greet)
So the original greet() is wrapped inside wrapper(), which adds functionality before and after.

🎯 When Are Decorators Useful?

Logging before/after function runs

Authentication checks

Measuring time

Caching

Permission control

🧠 Realistic Example: Login Check

def login_required(func):
def wrapper():
user_logged_in = True # Simulate a login check
if user_logged_in:
return func()
else:
print("Please log in first.")
return wrapper

@login_required
def view_profile():
print("Profile page")

⚙️
view_profile()
Decorator with Arguments
If your function takes arguments:

def debug(func):
def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
print(f"Calling {func.__name__} with {args}")
return func(*args, **kwargs)
return wrapper

@debug
def add(a, b):
return a + b

🔁
print(add(3, 4))
Summary
Term​ Meaning
Decorator​ A function that wraps another to modify behavior
Syntax​ @decorator_name above a function definition
Usage​ Add functionality without touching original code
Would you like to see how decorators work with classes or in a real-world Flask/Django example?