CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

\1.1 BACKGROUND STUDY The continuous inflation in the price of source of energy for cooking, lighting, mobility, and so on has become alarming and unaffordable compels demand for innovation of other less alternatives means of power, such as generation of biogas from animal waste. The most commonly used fuel is firewood. Even though sizeable proportions of urban and semi-urban dwellers are fuel wood, the majority of users of this fuel are the rural dwellers that constitute between 75-90% of the nations population. The problems emerging from sole dependence on this source of energy are many. For the fact that the effect increases desert encroachment, soil erosion and loss of soil fertility, the source of this energy undergo along period to regenerate. Consequently, dependence on fuel wood as a only energy results to environmental degradation which requires a large input and great expense to rehabilitate. To protect the environment from further deterioration and also supplement the energy needs of the rural dwellers, a technically can be effectively utilized (i.e. Biogas Technology). Using suitable organic materials such as agricultural waste, industries wastes and municipal solid wastes in digester have several advantages. The process produces energy in the form of a combustible gas known as biogas which has no undesirable effects on the environment. The end product of this process is a residual needed for healthy plant growth known as biofertilizer which, when applied to the soil, enriches it with no harmful effects on the environment.
1

The development and construction of biogas digesters which started in the 1920s has reached a significant level today (Primary and Perimental, 1979; Sambo, 1992) such that biogas technology has supplemented a large proportion of energy requirements of the rural majority in several developing countries like Nigeria. The availability of raw materials, coupled with the ever increasing price of fossil fuel, have made this technology attractive (Maishanu et al, 1990). The strategy can be utilized to provide energy for households, rural communities, farms and industries. In addition, developed and developing countries and several international

organizations have shown interest in biogas systems with respect to various benefits: a renewable source of energy, biofertilizer, waste recycling, rural development, Public health and hygiene, pollution control, environmental management, appropriate technology, and technical co-operation. Within the context of UNEP/UNESCO/ICRO microbiology Programme, which is sponsored jointly by the United Nations Environmental Programme, UNESCO, and the international cell Research Organisation, several workshops have been held in an attempt to catalyze the applications of this acknowledge low-cost, non waste producing technology that is increasingly being deployed to manage the environment and to ameliorate the search for substitute sources of fuel, food, and fertilizer. The utilization of microbial activity to treat agricultural, industrial, and domestic wastes had been common practice for a half century. Treatment includes the aerobic, activated slude process and the anaerobic or methane fermentation method; the latter is simple, does not require imported know-how or components, is suited to small family or village-scale digestion, and is the only process utilizing waste as a valuable resource.
2

Most importantly the use of methane has been restricted available and cheaper energy sources to the developing countries. 1.2 OBJECTIVES

1.2.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE The general objective of this investigation is generation of biogas from animal wastes i.e. (cattle dungs). 1.2.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES The specific objectives are as follows. 1. 2. To show that biogas is generated through anaerobic digester. To indicate the importance of animal waste as a source of energy.

1.3

JUSTIFICATION

Really countries like China, Philippines, India and many Asian countries are where biogas technology is being practiced. Though, African countries with much available raw materials for biogas production, much has been written but little has been done in the practical aspect. It is very paramount for development in this regard as it also helps in prompting a healthier climate, reduces deforestation and generates revenue. Obviously, in the rural areas where energy is being short, it is a necessity for finding alternative source of energy.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Hence, analysis has been carried out on the use of different animal waste in the production of biogas (wastes from beef, cattle, dairy cattle, poultry layers, etc.). The heat content (British thermal units) of the biogas from the different animal waste gives the highest quantity of biogas production (in cubic feet per day). The application of biogas in electricity generation, powering of machineries, domestic use cooking, lighting and heating), cogeneration and the limitation involved in biogas application has been given a detailed study in this project. The cost-benefit analysis involve in setting-up a biogas plant is also provided so as to know amount of net income that can be realized from the plant (Owumi, 2002). Lastly, this project is focused principally on generation of biogas as a subject which is treated in order to provide a full-scale definition of Biogas the raw materials needed to generate biogas; the chemical reaction involved; and the environmental and operational considerations that is, the factors militating biogas generation. A full description of the biogas plant the basic elements contain in this thesis. 2.1 DEFINITION OF BIOGAS

Biogas is a flammable gas produced by the anaerobic fermentation of organic waste materials such as cattle dung, agricultural wastes, water hyacinth, human excreta, solid organic wastes, etc. It is a mixture of methane (55 - 65%), carbon dioxide (30 - 40%) and traces of other gases such as Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Carbon monoxide, water vapour, ammonia and Hydrogen sulphide.

Biogas consists mainly of methane which is colourless, odourless, inflammable gas, it is referred to as sewage gas, klar gas, march gas, refuse-derived fuel (RDF), or sludge gas. A thousand cubic feet of processed biogas is equivalent to 600cubic feet of natural gas, 6.4 gallons of diesel oil. For cooking and lighting a family of four would consume 150cubic feet of biogas per day, an amount that is generated from the familys night soil and the dung of three cows. 2.2 CHEMISTRY OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

In the first place, the biogas production process involves the biological fermentation of organic materials such as agricultural waste, manure and industrial effluents in anaerobic (oxygen deficient) environment to produce methane, carbon dioxide and traces of hydrogen sulphide. Anaerobic digestion may be described as a three stage process. The first consists of micro-organisms attacking the organic matter, that is, complex organic compounds such as glucose and fructose. Polymers are transformed into soluble monomers through enzymatic hydrolysis. n(C6H10O5) + nH2O hydrolysis n(C6H12O6) (1)

The monomers become the substrate for the micro-organism in the second stage where soluble organic compounds are converted into organic acids by a group of bacteria collectively called acid formers. n(C6H12O6) acid forming bacteria 3nCH3COOH (2)

soluble organic acids consisting primarily of acetic acid, form the substrate for the third stage. 3nCH3COOH methane forming bacteria CH4 + CO2 (3)

Finally, methanogenic bacteria, which are strictly anaerobic in nature, can generate methane by two different routes. One is by fermenting acetic acid to methane and carbon dioxide, the other consists of reducing carbon dioxide through hydrogen gas generated by other bacteria species: CO2 + 4H2 Reduction CH4 +2H2O (4)

Carbon dioxide can also be hydrolysed to carbon acid as follows. CO2 + H2O hydrolysis H2CO3 (5)

The carbonic acid generated is reduced to methane and water by hydrogen as follows: H2CO3 +4H2 reduction CH4 +3H2O

The organic matter used in the methane fermentation generally contains volatile and ash. The volatile solids are made up of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, tannins etc. SAMIRS. S. & OSKAR R. C (Biomass conversion processes for energy and fuels)

2.3

ILLUSTRATION OF THE BIOGAS PLANT

It consists of two components: a digester and a gasholder. The digester is a cylindrical water proof container with an inlet into which the fermentable mixture is introduced in the form of liquid slurry. The gasholder cuts off air to the digester (anaerobiosis) and collects the gas generated. The construction, operation and maintenance determine the success of a biogas. Furthermore, several types of designs of biogas plants are in existence but the fixed done and the floating gasholder types are more popular. For biogas plant construction, important criteria are: (a) the amount of gas required for a specific use or uses, and (b) the amount of waste available for processing. Fry (8), singh (15), and others (10) have documented several guidelines for consideration in the designing of batch (periodic feeding) and continuous (daily feeding) compartmentalized and non compartmentalized biogas plants that are of either the vertical or horizontal type. In addition, researchers have recently dealt with the scientific principles, process engineering, and shapes of digestion reactors, and with the economics of the technology. Digester reactors are constructed from brick, cement, concrete, and steel. In Indonesia, where rural skills in bricklaying, plastering, and bamboo craft are well established, clay bricks have successfully replaced cement blocks and concrete.

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 THE DIGESTER

It is an integrated part of biogas digester where digestion of raw material takes place. Knowingly, it is the heart of biogas plant. Different classes of digesters with different mode of operations are analysed as stated: 3.1.0 MULTISTAGE DIGESTER Two groups of micro organisms viz: the comparatively fast growing acid forming (nonmethanogenic) bacteria and much slower sensitive methanogenic bacteria these are two classes of biomethanations. Multistage digesters are designed to isolate the groups of bacteria into separate vessel and to optimize each environment for maximum reaction rate. This kind of digester differs in their physiology, sensitivity to environmental stress, growth capabilities and nutritional requirements. For the fact that production of a gaseous fuel and residual solids with fertilizer valve, anaerobic digesters have a bad reputation because they are prone to operational problems i.e. hydraulic organic and toxic over loading. Initially, the dilution rate exceeds the growth rate of digester microbes, which are then washed out of the unit. High organic substance concentrations, on the other hand, cause increase in volatile acids formation. Methanogenic bacteria are inhibited, and the digester Sours as PH falls and failures ensures. Obviously, incase substances toxic to the methane bacteria enter the digester in adequate amounts, washout of this population causes failure of the overall process.

3.1.1 BATCH DIGESTER This is a procedure where organic matter is placed in a close tank and allowed to be digested anaerobically over a period of two to six months depending upon the feed materials and other parameters like temperature, pressure etc. it is usual to heat and maintain the digester at the desired temperature. Batch digester is very simple to run and very little attention need be paid to it between starting up and empting out. Maximum efficiency of digestion can be obtained if the digester is loaded carefully to avoid wastage of space and pockets of air trapped in the sludge, because these inhibit the onset of methanogenesis. This type of digester is generally used in the laboratory to asses the digestibility of particular waste. Batch digesters posses some advantages, in the sense that they can be used when the waste is only available at irregular intervals and even if it has a very high solid content (25%). If the waste is fibrous or difficult to digest, batch digestion may be more suitable than continuous flow types, because the digestion time can be increased easily. The Demerits of this type of digester are as follows: 1. Removing some of the contents and replacing with fresh waste is time consuming, messy and inefficient operation. 2. 3. Quantity of usable gas is relatively small. Initial gas yields could be high in carbon dioxide, the first volume of gas should be vented to atmosphere since it usually contains air which forms an explosive mixture with methane. 3.1.2 HIGH RATE DIGESTERS The designation of this integrates stirring or shaking of the contents to achieve good mixing and also has a means of heating to ensure a stable favourable temperature inside the digester. This type of digester is necessary for maximum efficiency couple with short retention time (RT). One application of the high rate
9

concept is in sewage treatment. High rate digestion speeds up the process and digestion are usually completed well with a month. Temperature usually associated with high-rate anaerobic digestion sewage takes place in the mesophilic range of about 200c to 400c. Operating the digester in the Thermophic range of about 450c to 600c can reduce the retention time. 3.1.3 ANAEROBIC FILTER RECTORS It was innovated in 1950s to use relatively dilute and soluble waste waters with low levels of suspended solids. It primarily consists of a column or chamber filled with a packing medium and are not carried out of the digester with the effluence. With the light of the above, these digesters are also known as fixed film or retained film digesters. The liquid enters at the bottom and flows up through the packing medium as the organisms in the liquid pass over the bacteria film, they are converted to biogas. One to the high concentration of bacteria, the gas production rates in these digesters is much higher than in conventional digesters. Gas rates of up to 5M3/day have been reported. The systems usually have loading rates which range from 8-16M3/day and retention times ranging from 5hours to 12days. L. P White & L. G. Plaskett (Biomass as fuel)

3.1.4 CONTINUALLY FED DIGESTER It is a form of digester that involves the feed as influent to be deposited into the vessel at regular intervals, probably once a day. The feed rate, in theory should be continuous for maximum efficiency, but in practice it could be intermittent. Considering equilibrium, the digest must also be emptied by a similar amount. On simple designs, this is automatically catered for, but in sophisticated types, influent and effluents rates are determined by pumps and associated equipment. 3.1.5 ANAEROBIC CONTACT REACTORS
10

The process is downward flow developed in the 1950s use a completely mixed reactor. It feeds at close head and is drawn off at the bottom. The liquid flow to a setting tank where the sludge containing methane forming micro-organisms settles out and is then returned to the digester. Anaerobic contact digesters are used in at lest nine agro-industrial plants in Europe. There have been some problems with these digesters related to the unpredictable and slow settling of the microorganisms from the digester liquid and the need for high sludge recycling rates. The retention time is about 20 to 30days. 3.2.0 ENVIRONMENTAL AND OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATION 3.2.1 RAW MATERIALS There are various sources for obtaining raw materials poultry waste and livestock, crop residues, night soil, food processing and paper water hyacinth, filamentous algae and seaweed. Different problems are encountered with each of these wastes with regard to collection transportation processing, storage, residue utilization and ultimate use. Agriculture residues like spent straw, hay, cane trash, corn and plant stubble and bagasse need to be shredded in order to facilitative their flow into the digester reactor as well as to increase the efficiency of bacteria action succulent plant material yields more gas then dried matter does, and hence materials like brush and weeds need semi-drying. The storage of raw materials in a damp, confined space for oven ten days, initiates anaerobic bacterial action. That, though causing some gas loss, reduces the time for the digester to become operational. 3.2.2 INFLUENT SOLIDS CONTENT Importantly, if fermentation materials are too dilute or too concentrated the biogas produced would be inactive resulting in low biogas production and insufficient fermentation activity, respectively. Practically the ratio of raw materials (domestic and poultry wastes and manure) to water should be 1.1 i.e. 100kg of excretes to 100kg of water in the slurry, this corresponds to a total solids concentration of 8% to 11%by weight.

11

3.2.3 LOADING Definitely, the determinant for the scale of the digester is loading, which is determining by the influent solid content, retention time and the digester temperature. Optimum loading rates vary with different digesters and their sites or location. Higher loading rates have been used when the ambient temperature is high. In general, the literature is filled with a variety of conflicting loading rates in practice, the loading rate should be an expression of either (a) the weight of total volatile solids (TVS) added per unit volume of the digester, or (b) the weight of TVS added per unit weight of TVS in the digester. The latter principle is normally used for smooth operation of the digester. 3.2.4 SEEDING Seeding with an adequate population of both the acid-forming and methanogenic bacteria is commonly practiced. Actively digestion sludge from a sewage plant constitutes ideal seed material. As a general guideline, the seed material should be twice the volume of the fresh manure slurry during the start-up phase, with a gradual decrease in the amount added over a three week period. If the digester accumulates volatile acids as a result of overloading, the situation can be remedied by reseeding, or by the addition of time or other alkali.
3.2.5 P H

If the PH is low it means the growth of the methanogenic bacteria and gas generation and is sometimes the result of overloading. The range of 6.0-8.0 is known as successful PH for anaerobic digestion while efficient digestion occurs at a PH near neutrality. A slightly alkaline state is an indication that PH fluctuations are not too drastic. Through the addition of lime or dilution low PH may be remedied. 3.2.6 TEMPERATURE

12

The choice of the temperature to be used is influenced by climate considerations. With a mesophilic flora digestion proceeds best at 30 400c with thermophilic, the optimum range is 50 600c. In general there is no rule of thumb, but for optimum process stability, the temperature should be carefully controlled within a narrow range of the operating temperature. In warm climates, with no freezing temperatures, digesters may be operated without added heat. As a safety measure, it is common practice either to bury the digesters in the ground on account of the advantageous green house covering. Heating requirements and, consequently, costs, can be minimized through the use of natural materials such as leaves, sawdust, straw, etc, which are composted in batches in a separated compartment around the digester. 3.2.7 NUTRIENTS

In the digester, the maintenance of favourable microbiological activity is decisive to gas emission and consequently is related to nutrient availability. Carbon and Nitrogen are two most important nutrients and a critical factor for raw materials choice is the overall C\N ratio. Notably, animal poultry wastes and domestic sewage are example of Nitrogen rich materials that provide nutrients for the growth and multiplication of the anaerobic organisms. In contrast, N- poor materials like green, corn stubble etc are rich in carbohydrates substances that are essential for gas production. Excess available of Nitrogen leads to the formation of NH3, the concentration of which inhibits further growth. Ammonia toxicity can be remedied by low loading or by dilution. In practice, it is imperative to maintain, by weight a C\N ratio close to 30.1 for achieving an optimum rate of digestion. Addition of materials low in Carbon with those that are high in Nitrogen, and vice versa can wisely control the C\N ratio.

13

3.2.8

TOXIC MATERIALS

A variety of pollutants that could inhibit digestion usually accompanied wastes and biogradable residue. Potential toxicity due to ammonia can be corrected by remedying the C\N ratio of manure through the addition of shredded biogases or straw, or by dilution. The soluble salts of Copper, Zinc, Nickel, Mercury, and Chromium are common toxic substances. Contrarily, salts of Sodium, Potassium, Calcium and Magnesium may be stimulatory or toxic in action, both manifestations begin associated with the caution rather than the anionic portion of the salt. Synthetic and pesticide detergents may also be troublesome to the process. 3.2.9 STIRRING

Gas generation may be hitched by the formation of a scum that is compressed of these low-density solids that are enmeshed in a filamentous matrix, when solid materials not well shredded are present in the digester. In time the scum hardens, disruption the digestion process and causing stratification. Mechanically through the use of a plunger or by means of rotational spraying of fresh influent internal agitation can be done successfully. In batch digester agitation is normally required, which is ensured in exposing of new surfaces to bacteria action, presents viscid stratification and slow down of bacteria activity and promotes uniform dispersion of the influent materials throughout the fermentation liquor, thereby speed up digestion. 3.3.0 RETENTION TIME

Loading rate, dilute, temperature e.t.c. these other factors influence retention time. Bio-digestion occurs faster at high temperature, reducing the time requirement. Normal period for the digestion of dung would be two to our weeks.

14

3.3.1 DEVELOPMENTS AND PROCESSES FOR RURAL AREAS A survey was adopted by the Economic and social council of the United Nations two years ago, presented in 1978 to the Committee on Science and Technology for development, listing the on-going research and development in unconventional source of energy. From this point of view of the developing countries, it is good to note that the use of farm wastes to produce methane, has also been identified in the United Nation World plan of Action for the Application of Science and Technology, to Development. The Economic and Social Council for Asia and the Pacific, moreover, adopted the Colombo Declaration at its thirtieth session which determined that the most urgent priorities for action are in the fields of food, energy, raw materials, and fertilizers, and that these priorities would be best met by the Integrated Biogas System (IBS). An integration system aims at the generation of fertilizer and acquisition of energy, production operation through the growth of algae and fish in oxidation ponds, hygienic disposal of sewage and other refuse and tangible efforts to counteract-environmental pollution. The core of the system is the biogas process. It has the ability to seed self reliance in relatively crude economics. The development of rural industry, the provision of local job opportunities, and the progressive eradication of hunger and poverty are allied benefits. The combination of a photosynthetic step with digestion provides for the transformation of the minerals left by digestion directory into algae that can be used as fodder, as feed for fish, as fertilizer or for increased energy production by returning them to the digester process.

15

Putting back into soil what has been taken from it and increasing the amount of nutrients by fixing CO2 and N2 from the atmosphere into the soil and water through photosynthesis by algae is the aim of IBS. Embracing low cash investments on a decentralized basis, the implementation of IBS provides employment to the whole work force without disrepute of the rural structure. Moreover, it is an example of soft technology that does not pollute or destroy the physical environment. Preliminary work on a small scale has started at the college of Agriculture of the University of the Philippines. An eco-house has been built by Graham Caine on the Thamas Polytechnic playing field at Eltham, South East of London in England. However, the results on the project are not yet available. 3.4 COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS

No general answer to the economic feasibility of biogas production. National economic consideration plays a prominent role. For instance, in South Korea where wood is in short supply and domestic fuel substitutes like rice and barley straw, and coal and oil could be conserved. Wood could be a foreign exchanger earner in the field of hand crafts. Transportation costs of coal and oil to the rural areas is high in India and an extra budded on an already poor farmer. The consumption of commercial and non commercial energy for the whole of India, as determined for the period 1960-1971 by the fuel policy committee report is provided in Table 1 below. TABLE 1 Consumption of Commercial and Non-Commercial Energy in India.

16

Year Coal

Oil [Million Tons]

Electricity [Million Tons] 6.75 9.94 14.95

Firewood [Billion Kwh]

Cowding [Million Tons]

Vegetable [Million Tons] 55.38 61.28 67.28

1960-1961 1965-1966 1970-1971

47.1 64.2 71.1

16.9 30.9 48. 7

101.04 111.82 122.75

Source: Ghosh, S.N. 1974, Report of the fuel policy committee. The rural share in the energy consumption of electricity and coal is not considerable because, as the report of the panel of the National Committee on Science and Technology on fuel and power indicates, the large towns and cities with population of 500,000 and more accommodate only 6percent of Indias total population but consume about 50percent of the total commercial energy produced in the country. However, in the villages where kerosene is used for lighting purpose, but it is clear that with increasing population biogas generation seems to offer solutions in the area of fuel availability, electricity fertilizer for cash crops and would provide other socioeconomic benefits. On the other hand, cost benefit analysis of methane generation varies widely, depending upon the uses and actual benefits of biogas production. A perfect example is the fact that a village model gas plant which cost Rs 500 some years ago, cost Rs 1,500 in 1974 and Rs 2,000 in 1977. Moreover, a significant problem is whether rural people who cannot spend Rs 2,000 can cope with increasing inflationary and digester construction materials costs.

17

TABLE 2 COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF BIOGAS PLANT (IN NIGERIA) (VILLAGE MODEL GAS PLANT) a. Capital cost Gas holder and frame 18,700

Piping and stove

6,940

Civil engineering construction (tank inlet and outlet etc) Total 42,020 67,660

b.

Annual expenditure The interest on investment at 9% Depreciation on gas holder and frame at 10% Depreciation on piping and stove at 5% Depreciation on structure at 3% Cost of painting, once a year Total 6,080 1,860 400 1,260 1,340 10,940

c.

Annual Income Gas 3m3/day at N300 per 29m3 (1,000cu Ft) 10,060

Manure (7tons, composted) with refuse 16tons at N800 per ton 12,800

18

Total d. Net Income (B- C)

22,860 11,920

Source: Based on the feasibility evaluation/analysis Escap document NR/EGNBD/4, June 1978.

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 DESIGN ANALYSIS AND CALCULATION

The act whereby engineers formulate plans for the physical realization of machine devices and system in respect of decision making process is known as design. It practically aimed at solving human problems. However, the following design consideration are made. i. There should be simplicity in the design and construction.

19

ii. iii. iv.

Easy replacement of the unit part on account of damage. The machine power condition should be minimal. The construction of the biogas unit should be at minimum cost compatible with its efficiency.

4.1.1 SIZING THE DIGESTER AND GAS HOLDER The determined factors for the size of the digester and gas holder are the volume of the biogas to be generated per day. The mass of waste and slurry needed, the height and diameter, mass of water and waste ratio. 4.1.2 VOLUME OF DIGESTER In this design, a module experiment is carried out to confirm. An empty graduated cylinder was weighted, then 1kg of cow dung was put into it and corresponding water weighting 1kg was added and the volume was recorded. The underlisted result was obtained. 1kg of dung + 1kg of water = 2kg of slurry = 210-3m 0.05m3 of biogas (B.O.R.D.A. 1991) Based on the above result, I am designing for 0.1m3 of slurry. Applying the method of proportionality the mss of waste slurry and volume of biogas are calculated. 1kg of dung = 2kg of slurry = 210-3m3of slurry. = 0.01m3 of biogas Y1 Y2 0.1M3 Y3

From proportionality
20

Y2 = 2 0.01 2 10-3 = 10kg Y2 = 10kg which is the weight of the slurry needed to produce 0.01m3 volume of the slurry. Hence Y1 = 10/2 = 5kg Y1 = 5kg which is the weight of the poultry waste to produce 0.01m3 of the slurry. Therefore Y3 = 0.01 0.05 2 10-3 = 0.25m3

Y3 = 0.25m3 which is the total volume of biogas generated per day by 0.01m3 of the slurry. 4.1.3 DIGESTER DIAMETER AND HEIGHT For the fact that manure is usually retained in the digestion chamber for the period of about 7weeks, then the digester volume is 15 volume of the slurry (15 0.01m3) which equals 0.15m3. The height should not be too high, diameter should not wide to give room for proper mixing . The dimension is analyzed as follows:

Vd Hd

21

d1 Fig 1 Reactor vessel Let Vd be the volume of the reactor in ms. Hd be the height of the reactor in m di be the internal diameter of the reactor in m. Volume = area height By considering a square cross- section Vd = Hd3 0.30 = Hd3 Hd = 0.655 - 0.66

But Vd = di2 Hd 4 0.30 = 3.142 di2 0.66m di = 0.30 4 2.07372 di = 0.76m Reactor diameter is 0.76m while Reactor height is 0.66 but for ease of construction purpose (Hd) height is taken as 0.892m and Diameter (di) is taken as 0.6m 4.1.4 GAS HOLDER SIZE

The Gas holding capacity represents the cone section of the reactor

100

22

2200 Fig (2) Let Hc be the height of the cone in on Vc be the radius of the cone in m By considering the volume of the cone Volume + 1/3 r2h V = 1/3 3.142 (0.2) 0.1 V =0.02513m3 0.025m3

4.1.5 DIGESTER THICKNESS

tD d1

Fig 3 Digester Thickness The diameter of the digester thickness is to ensure that the system works safely i.e. reducing the built in presence with reactor, so the principle of thin walled pressure vessels is used to analysed for the thickness (Banmested 8th edition). Let Pmax be maximum pressure within the reactor (N/m2) di is the internal diameter of the reactor (m) tD is the digester thickness (m) T is the tensile stress of the digester materials in (N/m2) Tangential stress acting uniformly over the stressed area is given as

23

T = Pmax d1 2tD

(1)

Maximum tangential stress (Baumester), 8th edition) is tmax = Pmax (d1 +tp) 2tp Since it is a sealed vessel, longitudinal stress is also considered tmax = Pmax d1 4tp From equation (2) tD = Pmax * d1 ( Tmax Pmax) From the gas equation Pv +MRT Where: P is the pressure of the biogas in (N/m2) V is the volume of the biogas in (m3) M is the mass of the biogas in (kg), k is the gas constant of the biogas in (Nm/kgk). T is the temperature at which the biogas is generated or stored in the reactor in (kg). But Pmax = Allowable pressure factor of safety =Pn (5) (4) (3) (2)

When n is the factor of safety and P is the allowable pressure substituted for Pmax in equation (4) TD = nP d1 (2 1 np) (6)

24

Mass of the gas = nPg Vb where Pg is the density of the biogas which is 1.693kg/m3 (C. M. S 1996) Vb is the volume of the biogas generated per day which is 0.25m3 now m=1.693 0.25 = 0.292kg. The gas constant R of the biogas is 312.45Nm/kgk (C.M.S. 1996). Temperature at which the gas is generated is 350c which is 308k substituting at the above in equation (5) PV = MRT P = MRT V P = 0.292 317.5 308 0.25 P = 114,218.72N/m2 P = 114.218KN/m2 Let the assumed factor of safety be 1.5, therefore 7 P = 1.5 114.218 103 = 171.327KN/m2 From the table, tensile stress T for mild steel is 150 106/m2 (Baymestur) d1 = 0.76m From equation (4) tD = 171.327 0.76 (2 150 106 171.327) = 130.20852 3.0 108 = 4.91 10-4m

25

= 4.91 10-1mm 0.49/mm For longitudinal stress from equation Tp= 171.327 0.76 4 150 106 1 30.20852 6.0 108

tp = 2.170 * 10-4m = 0.2170mm Since 0.491mm is greater than 0.2170mm, 0.491 is chosen as the thickness of reactor but for ease of construction purpose 1mm is chosen. 4.1.6 BASE PLATE THICKNESS OF THE DIGESTER The base plate thickness is affected by the weight of the slurry, which can cause buckling or bending of the plate. For a uniformly distributed load, the bending moment Mb (Baumester, 8th Edition) is

WI2 = Wd2 8 8

(10)

The bending stress b is Mb I Where I is the polar moment of the inertia C is the distance from the neutral axis I for rectangular object is bh3 = ditB3 2 12
26

(11)

C = tB 2 Substituting I, Mb and C in equation (ii) b = 3Wdi 4tB2 tB = 4b Where b = is the bending stress of the plate material in (N/m2). W is the weight of the slurry in (N/m) Di is the digester internal diameter in (m) W = mg = 10 9.81 = 98.1N/m Di = 0.76m b= 280 106N/m2 for mild steel (Agriya, 2000) substitute the above valves into equation (12) ----------------------------- (12)

tB =3 98.1 0.76 4 280 106

= 14.95553409 33466.40106 =4.48 10-4m

Multiplying by factor of safety, N = 1.5 tB = 6.70 10-4m = 0.67mm 4.1.7 SHAFT DESIGN

27

In designing the shaft, the blade or impeller is calculated along side the diameter of the shaft IMPELLER BLADE h h 2x Hd h-x h 2x fig. 4 Blade arrangement Now, Hd = h xth - = 2x + h x + h 2x = 4h 6x h = Hd + 6x ------------------------------- (7) 4 Let 5% Hd H = 0.3225 Hd -------------------------------------(8) Where h is the Blade height in (m) Hd is the height of the digested in (m) X is the distance from the edge of the blade at the second side. Substituting the earlier calculated valve of Hd into equation (8). H = 0.76 0.3225 h-x x

28

= 0.2451 0.25m which is the height of the blade. The blade is positioned at angle 1200 to each other as shown below.

1200 4.1.8 SHAFT DIAMETER

Fig. 5 Blade Orientation

Considering the design, torsional effect is certain from the viscous drag force by the slurry on the shaft through the blade. From fig. 4, since the radius of the impeller (v) is related to the reactor. i.e. r = 2di ---------------------------------- (9) 6 (Ayrinya 2000) Area of the blade Ab = h r substituting the above equation into equation (9)

Ab = 2hdi -----------------------------------(10) 6 Substituting the earlier calculated valves for di and h into equation (ii) Ab = 2 0.2 0.76 = 0.506m2 6 The drag force on the blade Fd is T Ab ------------(11)

29

Where T is the viscous shear stress on the blade but, T = dv = dx du --------------------------------(12) dv

where is the dynamic viscosity of the slurry dv is the velocity gradient dr The shaft velocity V = r Where r is the radius of the stirred in (rad/s) is the angular velocity of he stirred blade in (m) Now, V = 2N r 60 Where N is the shaft speed in (rev/min) which in 4rpm (Agrinya 2000) From equation (9) r = 2 0.76 = 0.253 = 0.25 6 Which is the radius of the blade substituting the valve of r and N into v V = 12.1 10-2m/s The dynamic viscosity of the slurry is 8.1413 10-4Ns/m2 (Agrinya 2000). Substituting the valve of v, r and 7 into equation (12) = 12.1 10-2 8.1413 10-4 0.25 = 9.850973 = 3.9403
30

0.25 = 3.940 10-4N/m2 Substituting the earlier calculated valves for Ab and T into equation (ii) Fd = 3.9 10-4 0.0506 = 1.973 10-5 which is the drag force exerted on the blade by the slurry. The torque on the shaft now will be T = fd r -------------------- (13) R is the radius of the shaft substitute the valve of fd and r into the equation (13) T = 1.973 10-5 0.25 = 4.9325 10-6Nm Since the blade is three, total torque Tt - 3 3 4.93 10-6 T = 1.479 10-5Nm From the relation (Baumester, 8th edition) I = T j r -------------------------------------------- (14)

Where T is the torque on the shaft in (Nm) j is the polar moment of inertia for a solid shaft. = d4 32 T is the shear stress in N/m2
31

r is the radius of the shaft Substitute j in equation below r = 2Tt -------------------------------------T From the table 1 for mild steel is 150 106N/m2 (Ibogbe 1999) Substitute the earlier calculated valves Tt and T into equation (15) r= 2 1.695 10-5 150 106 4.1.9 GAS FLOW ANALYSIS (15)

Essence of the flow-analysis is for adequate dimensioning of the outlets opening and the valves V1

Vo = 0 A1 P1P1 P0 P0 Fig. Gas flow Analysis

From the above diagram eo = density at upstream Po = Pressure at upstream Vo = velocity at upstream

32

e1 = density at downstream P1 = Pressure at downstream V1 = velocity at downstream Taking flow analysis as adabatic From Bernoulli equation (Eastop 1999) [ ] { [P0] [P1]} + [v12 v02 ] = 0 ---------------- (22) e1]} is the ratio of specific

[r 1] { [ Pe]

Since the tank is large, assume vo = 0 and v1 = 1 then where heat of liquid for isotropic flow e = e0 (P ) 1/ P0 P = e P . P0 [P0]1/ e0 P0 [P ]
-------------------------------------------------------

(23)

P = P0 (P) -1/ e e0 (P0)

- ----------------------------------------------------------

(24)

Substitute equation 24 in 23 ][ (P0 ) (P)] [ -1] [ (e0) (P0)]

V2/2 --------------------------- (25)

V=

( )

(P0) (P)

-1/

( -1) (e0) (P0)

---------------------------------- (26)
33

The velocity down stream of the orifice mass flow, Mr is given by Mr = Qf e Qr = volume flow rate (m3/s) C = density of the biogas (kg/m3) Qr =A1V Mr = A1Ve0

Substituting for V Mr = A1e0

[P0] [P] [ -1] [e0] [P0]

-1 --------------------------------- (27)

Actual mass flow, Mact = cdmr Cd = Coefficient The specific heat ratio CH4 = 1.313 CO2 = 1.304 eg = density of biogas = 1.1693kg/m3 is the heat ratio for methane and CO2 generated in the ratio 60:40 and is given by = (0.6 1.313) + (0.4 1.304) = 1.304 Therefore,
34

for

Mass flow rate Mr = Q/eg = Vbd/eg = 0.26/1.1693kg/day = 2.475 10-6kg/s 4.2.0 PRESSURE RATIO

The pressure ratio is obtained such that P1 Pv where Pv is the vapour pressure of the gas stream. In order that the ratio does not graduate above the vapour pressure which could lead to cavitations. For the pressure ratio we first determine the vapour pressure of the gas. By regression analysis data from compressed gas handbook (Agrinya, 2000). Pv = aTb Where Pv is the vapour pressure. T is the temperature A and b are the constants from the table. At T = 400c a = 1337.62 b = 1.45 Corr = 0.9993 Pv = 1337.62 401.45 = 281397.18N/m2 Choosing diameter of 0.01m

35

A = d2 = (0.01)2 4 4 = 7.85 10-5m2 = 1.3094, e0 = 1.1693kg/m3, Mr = 2.475 10-6kg/s substituting the valve above in equation (27)
r = 1 [ (2.475 10-6)2 (7.85 10-5) (2 1.715 105 1.3094)]

(0.3094) (1.1693) = 1 - 2.0076 10-63 =1 Since P0/P1 = 1 P1 = P0 (1) = 1.715 105 (1) = 1.715 105N/m2 P1 is allowed because P is less than Pv 4.2 1 HEAT TRANSFER ANALYSIS

-1

The generated heat by the digester should be able to: i.

Compensate for heat loss by evaporation of water into gas. Raise the temperature of the slurry. Compensate for heat loss from the tank by conduction

Heat transfer equation Q = MCs T Qs = MsCs T

Qs = MsCs (Ttank Tslurry) -------------------------------------- (16) Where Qs is the quantity of heat needed to heat the slurry (J). Cs is the specific heat capacity of the slurry (kJ/kgk) Tslurry is the slurry inlet temperature (k). Ttank is the tank temperature (k). Ms is the mass flow rate of the slurry (kg/m). Ms = X3 Vd tr Where X3 is the theoretical loading rate of total digestible matter (kg/m3/day) Vd is the volume of the slurry = 0.01m3 Tr is the retention time 45days Ms = 2 0.01 45 = 0.9kg Cs = 4.2 103J/kgk (Agrinya, 2000) Tslurry = 15 + 273 = 288k Ttank = 35 + 273 = 308k Substitute the valves into equation ------------------------------ (16) Qs = 0.9 4.2 103 (308 288) 103 = 75600J The heat transfer resistance R = x/KA where K is the thermal conductivity of the base plate = 113.11W/mk (Baumester). X is the material thickness = 0.491 10-3 m A is the surface area = di2 4 = (0.76)2 4
37

= 0.455m2 The thermal resistance R = 0.491 10-3 113.11 0.581 = 7.4714 10-6k/W This thermal resistance is negligible. The heat transfer will be through direct conduction since there is no heat lost and the convection will be a natural connection. However, because the part of the biogas generated will be used to supply the energy required should be calculated, checked for its effectiveness and compared with the volume generated per day. Energy required Qs = Cv volume where Cv is the calorific valve of the gas. Cv of methane is 33.934 106J/m3Qs/Cv = 75600 33.934 106 = 0.002228m3 This is very small in quantity compared to 0.25m3 of the biogas to be generated per day.

4.2.2 BASE STAND STRENGTH This unit is the strength of the base support to be able to withstand the load. W

38

0.38 R2 R1

Considering a beam having a concentrated load on it as shown above. Taking moment about R1 W 0.38 = R2 0.76 W is the weight of the slurry and the vessel weight. W = 10kg +450kg +34 = 494kg W = 4846.14N R2 = 4846.14 0.38 0.76 R2 = 1841.5332 0.76 R2 = 2423.07N Equating the upward and downward forces. W = R1 + R2 4846.14 = R1 + 2423.07 R1 = 4846.14 2423.07 R1 = 2423.07N 4.2.3 FACTOR OF SAFETY

39

The ideology that ultimate load is considerably larger than the load the components will be allowed to carry under normal working condition was applied to design machine component. A fraction of the ultimate load carrying capacity is utilized when the allowable load is applied for this design, a factor of safety ranging between 1 and 2 is used.

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 MATERIAL SELECTION, CONSTRUCTION AND COSTING

40

Material selection means proper thought is exercised in choosing durable and suitable materials which property would uphold the environmental effect. The construction of the project also must be done by priorities accuracy of measurement of materials along side with perfection of welding. Costing of the plant must be bearable to encourage masses. 5.1 MATERIAL SELECTION

Several factors have to be considered so as to make the process efficient and economical. Important factors known to be applicable in the design of biogas plants; i. ii. iii. iv.
v.

Availability of materials Available manufacturing technique Safety under operation Cost Workability and machine ability materials therefore chosen using the following criteria. for this project are

Categorically the product was analysed to actualize minimum acceptable valves for all the relevant materials properties. An evaluation of the materials which gave the best overall combination of properties and the least were selected.

41

The degree of relative importance of the various required properties from essential to desirable and for each property, the potential materials were placed in a ranking order. Materials that do not posses the least require criteria were eliminated at initial stage of selection. 5.1.1 IMPELLER MATERIAL

Based on it purpose, galvanized sheet was chosen which is readily available and relatively cheap. Its high strength suitable under the given working condition and also weld able. 5.1.2 VESSEL MATERIAL

It consists of mild steel which is available and comparatively cheap. Its strength accounts for suitability under working condition and weld-able within the locality. 5.1.3 SHAFT MATERIALS

Considerably, mild steel was chosen for this component just for its availability, cheapness strength and machineability. 5.1.4 BEARING

The bearings are of the self lubrication type because the air tightness of the unit which requires perfect sealing.

42

Properties of Materials COMPONENTS Vessel and base plate MATERIALS Mild steel PROPERTIES Tmax = 150mpa dy = 280mpa e = 7859kg/m3 E = 207gpa Shaft Mild steel 1mm thick Tmax = 150mpa dy = 280mpa e = 7850kg/m3 Impeller Galvanized sheet 1mm thick E = 207gpa d1 = 415mpa e = 7850kg/m3

5.1.5

CONSTRUCTION

It involves fabrication and assembling of various parts to build the system as a whole. i. VESSEL

The working drawing serves the purpose of construction for the construction of vessel with respect to the required diameter, height and water liter capacity drum. Likewise, gas holder was welded and the slurry inlet and outlet was drilled in the workshop, with filler drilling machines to the required diameter for fitting.

ii

SHAFT IMPELLER

43

Machining of shaft was done on lathe machine on the ground of working drawing. Turning operation was carried out to provide a place for the bearing to be forced fitted. Fabrication and welding also done according to the precision of impeller. iii. BASE SUPPORT

Stability of the digester is very paramount in that wise carefulness was adopted in cutting the standing precisely. The welding also done base on the indication on the drawing. iv. ASSEMBLERS

This action succeeded construction process, fittings were done and base support was screwed to the base. 5.1.6 COSTING

It implies price of various materials and other expenses involved during the construction of the project.

CHAPTER SIX

44

6.0 6.1

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS CONCLUSION

This project features various types of biogas digesters that could be set up to generate the methane gas purposely for lighting, cooking and so on. It also analyses the most viable animal waste suitable for the production of biogas, which is, the cattle dung. The application of biogas as stated in this research work covers the various areas which biogas can be efficiently, effectively and economically utilized. e.g domestic use; cooking, heating and lighting. The generation of biogas has indicated the importance of the residue (slurry) for agricultural use i.e fertilizer. 6.2 (a) RECOMMENDATIONS Government in conjunction with other research and development centres

should encourage the establishment of a database on biogas in order to enable existing and promising designs, application and analysis to be assessed more accurately and should also identify with greater precision the places where biogas plants could become acceptable and economically viable. (b) Cattle dung and poultry waste are potential source of methane. Investigation

indicates that more of methane was produced at mesophilic temperature than at room temperature. Negligence of government to the importance of biogas production and

application in Nigeria hinders its fame.

45

46