Casting properties Foundry is a process of producing metal castings.

Casting is an operation of shaping metal by pouring it in the liquid state into a mold followed by solidification. Casting is also a metal detail, produced as a result of pouring a metal into a mold. In some cases casting is the only method of shaping a metal or alloy: when the alloy is not malleable and therefore its plastic deformation is not possible or when a large detail of complex shape is to be produced.

Metal castings quality is determined by the casting properties of the metal: Fluidity
Fluidity an ability of metals and alloys to flow through the gating system filling the cavity of the casting mold and conforming its shape.

Factors determining fluidity:

Solidification interval (the difference between liquidus and solidus temperatures of the alloy).

The wider solidification interval of an alloy, the lower fluidity of the alloy, as a certain part of the solidifying alloy has an increased viscosity caused by the presence of solid primary crystals, formed in course of cooling the alloy below the liquidus temperature. The fluidity of pure metals is better than that of their alloys. Eutectic alloys, characterized by nil solidification interval, possess good fluidity. Viscosity of the alloy (the lower viscosity of an alloy, the better its fluidity). As viscosity decreases with temperature, metals and alloys cast at increased temperature fill better the mold cavity. Surface tension of the alloy. Low surface tension causes better filling of the mold cavity.

Shrinkage
Shrinkage is a contraction of alloy volume caused by: Contraction of the melt when it cools down to the liquidus temperature. Contraction of the alloy owing its solidification (cooling from liquidus temperature to solidus temperature).

All metals except bismuth have higher density in solid state, than in liquid. Contraction of the solid alloy cooling from the solidus temperature to the ambient temperature.

Shrinkage is determined by the temperature of the cast alloy, its chemical composition and by the conditions of its solidification (cooling rate, mold shape). Shrinkage cavity When a large isolated region of liquid phase remains within solid, surrounding it, shrinkage cavity will form in this region. The common mold structure includes a riser a head, in which the melt solidifies last and feeds the main casting with liquid alloy, compensating the casting shrinkage.

Shrinkage porosity This shrinkage defect is a characteristic for the central regions of castings (ingots) of the alloys with a wide temperature range of solidification. In these castings feeding melt is not able to infiltrate through the interlacing dendrites. The local micro-spaces between the dendrites arm remain isolated from the melt in riser forming micro-cavities or shrinkage porosity.

Surface quality Surface quality is determined by:

the surface quality of the mold walls, the mold coating material properties, gassing of the mold or coating materials, chemical reaction between the mold material and the alloy, casting pressure.

Resistance to cracks formation

Casting cracks are result of internal stresses caused by a non-uniform cooling of the casting. Alloys having low ductility are the most susceptible to cracks formation. Hot cracks form during solidification of the alloy within the solidification interval. Cold cracks form in completely solidified casting during its consequent cooling. Degassing treatment of molten aluminum alloys Degassing of molten Aluminum alloys is a foundry operation aimed to remove Hydrogen dissolved in the melt. Hydrogen in aluminum Degassing by fluxes Rotary degasser

Hydrogen in aluminum
Liquid aluminum actively dissolves hydrogen, which forms as a result of chemical reaction with water vapor: 2Al + 3H2O = Al2O3 + 6H Solubility of gaseous hydrogen in liquid aluminum at its melting point (1220.7F/660.4C) is 0.61 in3/lb (2.2 cm3 per 100 g). Solubility of gaseous hydrogen falls sharply when aluminum solidifies: solid aluminum at melting point contains only 0.014 in3/lb (0.05 cm3 per 100 g). Therefore aluminum alloys release excessive amount of hydrogen during Solidification. This results in porosity defects distributed throughout the solid metal. Size of the hydrogen pores and their quantity is determined by the initial content of hydrogen, the alloy composition and the solidification conditions.

Sources of hydrogen in molten aluminum:

atmosphere humidity; wet metallic charge; wet furnace lining (crucible, transfer ladles); wet foundry instruments; wet fluxes and other consumables; furnace fuel combustion products containing hydrogen.

Methods of hydrogen content estimation:

Slow solidification. In this method a small portion of liquid aluminum (about 2 in3/33 cm3) is poured into a cavity in a heated refractory brick. The alloy slowly solidifies and the released hydrogen is concentrated in the upper part of the casting in form of frozen bubbles. Quantity of the hydrogen bubbles at the sample surface is determined by the hydrogen concentration.

Vacuum method. This quantitative method uses solidification of a sample portion of the aluminum alloy in a small crucible at low pressure. Hydrogen dissolved in the alloy starts to form a gaseous phase (a bubble) at a certain pressure. When the first bubble is formed both the pressure and the temperature are measured. These parameters are used for determination of the hydrogen content by means of numeric diagrams.

Degassing by fluxes Fluxes composed of chlorine and fluorine containing salts are used for degassing molten aluminum alloys. Degassing fluxes are commonly shaped in form of tablets. Degassing operation starts when a flux tablet is plunged by a clean preheated perforated bell to the furnace bottom. The flux components react with aluminum forming gaseous compounds (aluminum chloride, aluminum fluoride). The gas is bubbling and rising through the melt. Partial pressure of hydrogen in the formed bubbles is very low therefore it diffuses from the molten aluminum into the bubbles. The bubbles escape from the melt and the gas is then removed by the exhausting system. The process continues until bubbling ceases.

Rotary degasser In the rotary degassing method an inert or chemically inactive gas (Argon, Nitrogen) is purged through a rotating shaft and rotor. Energy of the rotating shaft causes formation of a large number of fine bubbles providing very high surface area-to volume ratio. Large surface area promotes fast and effective diffusion of hydrogen into the gas bubbles resulting in equalizing activity of hydrogen in liquid and gaseous phases. Rotary degasser allows achieve more complete hydrogen removal as compared to the flux degassing. Additionally rotary degasser does not use harmful chlorine and fluorine containing salts. Rotary degasser may also combine the functions of degassing and flux introduction. In this case the inert gas serves as carrier for granulated flux. The method is called flux injection.

Advantages of flux injection:

high effectiveness of flux action due to better mixing with the melt; short flux treatment time; controllable flux introduction; more environmentally friendly method of fluxing.

Die casting Die casting is a process, in which the molten metal is injected into the mold cavity at an increased pressure up to 30,000 psi (200 MPa). The reusable steel mold used in the die casting process is called a die. Die casting is a highly productive method of casting parts with low dimensions tolerance and high surface quality. The following parts are manufactured by die casting method: automotive connecting rods, pistons, cylinder beds, electronic enclosures, toys, plumbing fittings. The molten metal injection is carried out by a machine called die casting machine.

There are two principal die casting methods: hot chamber method and cold chamber method. Cold chamber die casting Hot chamber die casting Design aspects of die casting Advantages and disadvantages of die casting

Cold chamber die casting

In the cold chamber die casting machines hydraulically operated plunger forces a molten metal to flow in the cold cylinder (chamber). A principal scheme of the cold chamber die casting machine is shown in the picture:

Cold chamber process:

When the pressure chamber is filled with a molten metal the plunger starts traveling forward and builds up a pressure forcing the metal to flow through the sprue to the die cavity. After the metal has solidified the plunger returns to its initial position allowing a new portion of the molten metal to fill the pressure chamber. The die then opens and the ejector pins removes the casting from the die. The casting cycle now may be repeated.

Cold chamber method is mainly used for casting Aluminum alloys, Magnesium alloys, Copper alloys and zinc alloys (including zinc-aluminum alloys).

Hot chamber die casting

In the hot chamber die casting machines the pressure chamber (cylinder) and the plunger are submerged in the molten metal in the pot (crucible). Hot chamber machines have short casting cycle (about 1 sec.). They are capable to cast thin wall casting with good filling the cavity under precise temperature control of the molten metal. Hot chamber process may be used for casting low melting metals, which are chemically inert to the material of the plunger and other parts of the casting machine: zinc alloys (except zinc alloys containing more than 10% of aluminum), tin alloys and Magnesium alloys.

Maintenance of hot chamber machines is more expensive as compared to the cold chamber process.

Hot chamber process:

The plunger goes up allowing the melt to fill the cylinder space. The die is closed at this stage. The plunger goes down forcing the melt to flow through the gooseneck into the die cavity. After the die has been filled with the melt the plunger is held under a pressure until the Solidification is completed. The die opens. The casting stays in the die part equipped with ejectors. The plunger goes up and the melt residuals return through the gooseneck back to the pot. The ejectors push the casting out of the die.

Design aspects of die casting

Since the metallic mold of a die casting expands when it is filled with a molten metal and then both the casting and the mold shrinks during cooling the shrinkage allowances taken in the die mold design are smaller than those in the Sand casting. Parts of 0.05 lb (20 g) to 75 lb (34 kg) may be cast. The section thickness of permanent mold casting may vary in the range 0.02 - 0.5 (0.512 mm). The dimensional tolerances are 0.01-0.03 (0.25-0.75 mm) depending on the casting section thickness. Allowances of 0.004-0.01 (0.1-0.25 mm) are taken for the dimensions crossing the parting line of the mold. The draft angle is commonly about 1%. Lower (as compared to other casting methods) radii of the part corners may be achieved by die casting process. Changes of the section thickness should be as gradual as possible. The parting line should not cross critical dimensions. Water-cooled dies may be used for obtaining faster Solidification at a desired direction. The dies are fabricated from Tool and die steels. The die life is determined the ability of the material to withstand wear caused by the molten alloys and Fatigue caused by multiple heating and expansion. The cores are made of refractory ceramic materials. Sand based cores are not applicable due to their insufficient strength under pressure applied in die casting.

Advantages and disadvantages of die casting Advantages of die casting:

High productivity. Good dimensional accuracy.

Good surface finish: 2-100 inch (0.5-2.5 m) Ra. Thin wall parts may be cast. Very economical process at high volume production. Fine Grain structure and good mechanical properties are achieved. Intricate shapes may be cast. Small size parts may be produced.

Disadvantages of die casting:

Not applicable for high melting point metals and alloys (eg. steels) Large parts can not be cast. High die cost. Too long lead time. Some gases my be entrapped in form of porosity.

Horizontal continuous casting in graphite mold The main advantages of horizontal Continuous casting method over vertical continuous casting are as follows: Lower capital investment required for the equipment installation (all machines - on the same level). Better conjunction with other manufacturing processes (raw materials feeding and loading, Rolling, heat treatment, products storage). More convenient operation for the personnel.

Graphite molds are commonly used in the horizontal continuous casting methods. Characteristics of graphite molds Continuous casting cooling system Configurations of continuous casting graphite molds Withdrawal regime of horizontal continuous casting Useful rules and tips for casting engineers Horizontal continuous casting plant

Characteristics of graphite molds

Isostatically pressed graphite possesses unique combination of mechanical, tribological and thermal properties, which is favorable for continuous casting mold application. Characteristics of graphite for continuous casting molds: Low wettability High thermal conductivity

Low coefficient of thermal expansion High thermal shock resistance Self-lubrication Good mechanical strength Good machinability

Continuous casting cooling system

Solidification of metals and alloys in continuous casting process is controlled by its cooling system.

Functions of continuous casting cooling system:

Withdrawal the casting at a rate providing required production capacity. Effective heat extraction by the cooling system allows to cast at high speed. Providing stable and steady casting process. Formation of fine and homogeneous Grain structure. Diminishing the thickness of the defective surface layer. This layer is commonly machined prior to metal forming processing. Preventing formation of transverse and longitudinal cracks. Preventing the casting distortion.

Cooling system in continuous casting process consists of:

1. Primary cooling - extraction of the solidifying metal heat through the mold walls. 2. Secondary cooling - cooling the casting bar exiting the mold by direct water/air streams. Secondary cooling is not always necessary. Thin strips and alloys susceptible to thermal stresses are cast without secondary cooling.

Configurations of continuous casting graphite molds

Different configurations of graphite molds are presented in the figure. Directly water-cooled graphite mold. In this mold its surface is sprinkled by water stream. This type of cooling is very effective due to elimination of air gap between the graphite mold surface and the coolers. High cooling rates achieved in the directly water-cooled mold allow to use short molds and reach relatively high withdrawal speeds. Fast formation of thick and strong casting skin permit in many cases to pull the casting from the mold in non-intermittent regime without pauses and reverse steps. The resulted micro-structure is fine and homogeneous. The disadvantages of the method are: too thick defective surface layer, which should be machined; high thermal stresses caused by high cooling rate; inconvenient (open) water circulation system. Graphite mold cooled by water-cooled copper blocks. Cooling rate in this method is relatively low due to the air gap between the graphite mold surface and the surfaces of the copper coolers. Molds of this type are longer than directly water-cooled graphite molds. Thin and weak casting skin formed in the mold may tear due the friction with the graphite surface therefore casings solidified in molds with water-cooled copper coolers are pulled by an intermittent regime (with pauses and reverse steps). Low cooling rate and intermittent pulling result in less homogeneous micro-structure. Graphite mold attached to the holding furnace/tundish. In this case the mold is connected to the holding vessel through a break ring - ceramic part providing steady supply (feeding) of liquid metal to the mold. The break ring should conform the mold cross-section. Mold connection is

relatively simple. The disadvantage of the mold structure is possible retreat of the solidification front out of the mold space (solidification of the metal in the break ring) during emergency pauses of the withdrawal process. This makes impossible restarting the casting withdrawing. Submerged graphite mold. The enter tip of the graphite mold is prominent into the holding vessel space and submerged into the melt. Such configuration allows to stop the withdrawal process for any time and then restart it. Solidification front stays within the mold. One of the applications of the methods of casting in graphite mold is Continuous casting of aluminum based bearing alloys (water cooled mold and submerged mold).

Withdrawal regime of horizontal continuous casting Stable extraction of continuous casting without tears and cracks is dependent on the following factors:
Primary cooling rate. High cooling rates favor formation of thick and strong skin, which does not tear as a result of friction. Graphite quality. Graphite possessing low porosity and high thermal conductivity provide low friction and high cooling rate. Temperature interval of solidification (difference between the liquidus and solidus temperatures) of the cast alloy. The alloys with wide temperature interval of solidification may form tears in the mushy zone (partially solidified alloy) during the casting withdrawal. Presence of constituents wetting the graphite and penetrating into the graphite pores (Ni, Zn, Sn). Extraction of the castings containing such constituents is characterized by increased friction and sticking to the graphite surface, which may result in cracks and tears.

Combination of the above factors determines the withdrawal regime:

(the regimes are also presented graphically in the figure below) Non-intermittent extraction. This regime is generally used for casting alloys with low temperature interval of solidification (eg. pure metals) and in casting at high cooling rate (Horizontal continuous casting in graphite mold#Configurations of continuous casting graphite molds|directly water-cooled graphite mold). Intermittent extraction with a pause. This regime is used for casting at lower cooling rates. The withdrawal cycle consists of a forward stroke followed by a pause. During the pause the portion of the melt entered the mold starts solidification forming strong skin, which will not tear in the next extraction cycle. Intermittent extraction with one reverse step. The alloys having wide temperature interval of solidification are withdrawn by this regime. The skin formed during the pause is not strong enough therefore it tears during subsequent cycle. The reverse step followed by the forward stroke causes closing and healing the tears (cracks). Intermittent extraction with two reverse steps. This regime is used for casting alloys containing constituents penetrating into the graphite pores and causing sticking the casting to the graphite surface. The second reverse step following after the solidification pause results in disconnecting the stuck casting from the graphite. The second reverse step is immediately followed by the next forward stroke.

Useful rules and tips for casting engineers

It is very important that the adjacent surfaces of the copper cooler and the mold are flat and smooth (max. roughness 0.002/0.05 mm). The coolers should be filled with water during the furnace/tundish preheating in order to prevent distortion. During preheating the mold tip should be protected from oxidation by ceramic cloth (or similar). It is necessary to inspect visually the mold, to check a presence of defects and cracks particularly in the part prominent from the cooler. Deviation of the mold from horizontal direction should not be more than 0.02%. The less the cross-section (thickness in case of strip casting) of the cast bar the higher should be the liquid metal temperature in the holding vessel. It is recommended to start casting at lower melt temperature and then it may be gradually increased. It is recommended to start at low temperature of the outgoing cast bar and lower withdrawal speed and then the temperature and the speed may be gradually increased. If cracks or tears form, the temperature of the outgoing cast bar and the casting speed should be decreased and then after disappearing the cracks the temperature and the speed may be increased again. If cracks or tears form the temperature in the holding furnace/tundish should be increased and then after disappearing the cracks the temperature may be decreased again. Large extraction steps permit to increase the average speed however the resulted structure is non-homogeneous. Small extraction steps result in more homogeneous structure but lower productivity.

Horizontal continuous casting plant

The typical configurations of horizontal continuous casting plant are presented in the figure:

Permanent mold casting Permanent mold casting (gravity die casting) is a casting process involving pouring a molten metal by gravity into a steel (or cast iron) mold. The permanent mold casting is similar to the sand casting process . In distinction from sand molds, which are broken after each casting a permanent mold may be used for pouring of at least one thousand and up to 120,000 casting cycles with the rate 5-100 castings/hour. Manufacturing metal mold is much more expensive than manufacturing molds for Sand casting or investment casting process mold. Minimum number of castings for profitable use of a permanent mold is dependent on the complexity of its shape. Ferrous and no-ferrous metals and alloys are cast by the permanent mold casting process: Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Magnesium alloys, zinc alloys, steels and Cast irons. Permanent mold casting process Design aspects of permanent mold casting Advantages and disadvantages of permanent mold casting

Permanent mold casting process

The interior surfaces of the two parts (cope and drag) of a permanent mold are coated with a thin ceramic coating. The mold is preheated before coating to 300-500F (150260C). The cores are inserted and installed in the mold assembly. The mold is closed. The molten metal is poured into the mold.

After the casting has solidified and cooled down to the desired temperature the mold is opened and the casting is withdrawn from it. The gating system is cut away from the casting. The finish operations are carried out.

Design aspects of permanent mold casting Permanent molds are made of Carbon steels, grey cast irons, Graphite (for casting steels and Cast irons) or bronze. Since the metallic mold of a permanent casting expands when it is filled with a molten metal and then both the casting and the mold shrinks during cooling the shrinkage allowances taken in the permanent mold design are smaller than those in the Sand casting. External cooling (by water or air) may be used for creating desired solidification direction and reducing shrinkage defects and internal stresses. Parts of 0.4 lb (0.1 kg) to 150 lb (70 kg) may be cast. The section thickness of permanent mold casting may vary in the range 0.1 - 2 (2.5-50 mm). The dimensional tolerances are 0.015-0.06 (0.4-1.5 mm) depending on the casting section thickness. Allowances of 0.01-0.03 (0.25-0.75 mm) are taken for the dimensions crossing the parting line of the mold. The draft angle is commonly 1-3%. Permanent cores are commonly used for permanent mold castings, however if a casting has cavitys shape not allowing a withdrawal of the core it is made of chemically bonded sand or other materials used for preparation of expendable cores. New consumable cores are added after each pour. The process combining permanent mold and consumable parts (cores) are called semi-permanent casting.

Advantages and disadvantages of permanent mold casting Advantages of permanent mold casting process are determined by relatively high cooling rate caused by solidification in metallic mold:
Better mechanical properties. Homogeneous grain structure and chemical composition. Low shrinkage and gas porosity. Good surface quality: 40-250 inch (1-6 m) Ra. Low dimensional tolerances: typically about 0.04 (1 mm}. Little scrap process.

Disadvantages of permanent mold casting:

High cost of the molds. Limitations in casting of high melting point metals into metallic molds.

Intrinsic and complex shapes can not be cast. Large parts can not be cast.

Continuous casting in traveling mold Continuous casting methods using traveling endless molds (rolls, belts, wheels) are characterized by zero relative movement between the mold and casting surfaces. Strips and slabs cast by such methods have low defect surface. The castings may be coiled and further processed (rolled) without surface machining in contrast to those cast in stationary molds (eg. Horizontal continuous casting in graphite mold). Most moving molds provide high cooling rate due to very small air gap between the mold and casting surfaces. Effective heat transfer through metallic water-cooled mold also favors fast Solidification.

Methods of continuous casting in moving mold:

Single roll caster Twin-roll caster Twin-belt caster Block caster Rotary caster

Single roll caster

In a single roll caster liquid metal is supplied to the surface of a water-cooled rotating roll. The melt contacting with the roll surface cools down and solidifies forming a thin continuous strip.

The advantages of the single roll continuous casting method are:

high productivity; capability to cast very thin strips; low capital cost.

Single roll caster provides very high cooling rate. Linear speed of the roll surface is 50 - 400 f/min (15-120 m/min).

The method is used for casting thin-gauge (0.04-0.12 / 1-3 mm) aluminum strips. Low variation of casting thickness is achieved by uniform cooling of the roll surface.

Twin-roll caster
In twin-roll casting process a melt is fed through a ceramic nozzle into the gap between two rotating water-cooled rolls. The melt cools down and solidifies between the rolls. Additionally the solid strip exerts hot rolling with the thickness reduction of about 5-20%. There are three possible configuration of twin-roll casters: vertical downward casting, vertical upward casting and horizontal casting (see the picture below). The most popular configuration now is horizontal and 15 tilt back. The roll dimensions may vary in wide ranges: diameter 12-60 (300-1500 mm), width 6-86 (150-2184 mm). The water-cooled roll shells are made of steel, copper or copper-nickel alloys. Sticking between the roll and the solidified strip is prevented by means of a parting agent applied to the roll surface. The agent contains Graphite or magnesium hydroxide. Twin-roll casting process provides extremely high cooling rate up to 1000F/s (550C/s). Fast cooling allows to reach high casting rate, which is 3-125 ft/min (0.9-38 m/min) for Aluminum alloys and 15-1500 ft/min (5-460 m/min) for steels. Thickness of the cast strips may be as low as 0.004 (0.1 mm). Maximum thickness reaches 0.2 (5 mm) for steels and 0.4 (10 mm) for aluminum. Typical gauge of twin-roll cast strips is about 0.1 (2.5 mm). Twin-roll casters are used for casting alloys with relatively low temperature interval of solidification: aluminum and its alloys containing max. 2.5% Mg (Wrought aluminum alloys (1xxx), Wrought aluminum-manganese alloys (3xxx), Wrought aluminum-magnesium alloys (5xxx)), Stainless steels, special steels, Carbon steels. Twin-roll casters are also used for continuous casting of aluminum based bearing alloys.

Twin-belt caster
In twin-belt casting process a melt is fed through a ceramic nozzle into the gap between two rotating thin belts held in tension. The belts are cooled by water jets from the side opposite to the

surface contacting with the casting. The melt cools down and solidifies between the belts. Width of the cast slab is determined by two chains of steel blocks traveling with the belts and preventing side leakage of the non-solidified melt. The cast slab/strip is pulled out by a withdrawal unit synchronized with the drive of the belts. Most twin-belt casters use carbon steel belts of about 0.06 (1.5 mm) thick. The max. width of the cast slabs is 79 (2000 mm). The strip/slab thickness is within the range 0.1-1.3 (2.5-33 mm). The typical casting thickness is 0.5-1 (12.5-25 mm). The max. twin-belt casting speed is 30 ft/min (9 m/min). The slab leaving the twin-belt caster is still hot and may be hot rolled in-line to a gauge 0.1-0.2 (2.5-5 mm) and then coiled. Twin-belt casters are generally used for casting aluminum alloys containing up to 3% of Mg: Wrought aluminum alloys (1xxx), Wrought aluminum-copper alloys (2xxx), Wrought aluminummanganese alloys (3xxx), Wrought aluminum-magnesium alloys (5xxx)), Wrought aluminummagnesium-silicon alloys (6xxx). Twin-belt caster is successfully used for continuous casting of aluminum based engine bearing alloys. The belts are supported and chilled by two water-cooled copper plate.

Block caster
In a block caster a molten metal is fed through a ceramic nozzle into the space formed by two chains of steel blocks traveling like caterpillar tracks. The blocks are cooled on their way back by chillers. The melt cools down and solidifies in the space between the steel blocks. The blocks are adjacent to each other in order to prevent penetration of liquid metal into the gap between them. The cast slab/strip is pulled out by a withdrawal unit synchronized with the drive of the blocks. The max. width of the cast slabs is 69 (1750 mm). The slab gauge is within the range 0.4-1.6 (10-40 mm). The casting rate is 1.6-33 ft/min (0.5-10 m/min). The technology may be used for most Aluminum alloys containing up to 5% of Mg. Cooling rate is controllable by the blocks temperature and the casting speed. The method allows to cast alloys

susceptible to cracks caused by fast cooling.

Rotary caster

Rotary caster technology combines twin-roll and twinbelt casting methods. A rotary caster consists of a steel wheel (diameter up to 102 (2600 mm)) with a peripheral groove and an endless steel belt closing the groove and forming the casting space. The groove has triangular, trapezoidal rectangular cross-section. The wheel and the belt rotate with the linear speed of about 45 ft/min (14 m/min). The belt is cooled by water jets. When a melt is poured into the space between the groove and the belt it cools down and solidifies. The slab/strip/bar leaving the caster is still hot and may be hot rolled in-line to and then coiled. The wheel diameter is up to 102 (2600 mm). Aluminum alloys (Wrought aluminum alloys (1xxx), Wrought aluminum-manganese alloys (3xxx), Wrought aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys (6xxx)) and Copper alloys for electrical applications (wires, conductors, bus bars) are cast by the rotary method.

Molybdenum disulfide as solid lubricant Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is a crystalline lamellar structure material contained in the natural mineral Molybdenite. Molybdenum disulfide is a solid lubricant relating to the class of Inorganic lubricants with

lamellar structure, which also includes molybdenum Graphite, boron nitride (BN) and some other sulphides, selenides and tellurides (chalcogenides) of molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum and titanium. The crystal lattice of molybdenum disulfide is similar to that of Graphite. It consists of hexagonal molybdenum planes sandwiched between two hexagonal sulphur planes. The atoms in the planes are strongly covalently bonded to each other. The planes are bonded by weak Van der Waals forces. The layered structure allows sliding movement of the parallel plates. Weak bonding between the planes provides low shear strength in the direction of the sliding movement but high compression strength in the direction perpendicular to the sliding movement. Friction forces cause the particles of molybdenum disulfide to orient in the direction, in which the hexagonal layers are parallel to the sliding movement. The anisotropy of the mechanical properties imparts the combination of low coefficient of friction and high carrying load capacity to molybdenum disulfide. The sulfur layers of molybdenum disulfide have an affinity for tenacious adherence to the metal substrate atoms therefore a strong lubrication film is formed on the substrate surface. The lubrication film provides good wear resistance and seizure resistance (compatibility). In contrast to graphie moist atmosphere is not required for lubrication by molybdenum disulfide. Therefore it demonstrates low friction in dry atmosphere and in vacuum where its coefficient of friction is even lower than in the presence of water vapor. Coefficient of friction of molybdenum disulfide is lower than that of graphite and it decreases with increasing load. At high loads in vacuum it may be as low as 0.03. Application of molybdenum disulfide in open air at elevated temperatures is limited to 700F (371C). Higher temperatures cause oxidation of MoS2 into the molybdenum trioxide MoO3 and sulfur dioxide SO2. The oxides attract moisture resulting in increase of the coefficient of friction. In non-ixidizing environment and in vacuum molybdenum disulfide is stable up to 2100F (1150C).

Some applications of molybdenum disulfide :

Additives in lubricating oils Components of polymer based composite anti-friction coatings Second phase particles of metal based composite anti-friction coatings Solid lubricant in metal forming Release coatings and non-sticking refractory linings in foundry

Graphite as solid lubricant Graphite is a crystalline, low density and soft allotrope of carbon. Graphite is a solid lubricant relating to the class of Inorganic lubricants with lamellar structure, which also includes molybdenum disulphide, boron nitride and some other sulphides, selenides and tellurides (chalcogenides) of molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum and titanium. The crystal lattice of graphite consists of hexagonal rings forming thin parallel planes (graphenes). Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three other atoms in the plate (the angle

between two bonds is 120). The graphenes are bonded to each other by weak Van der Waals forces.

The layered structure allows sliding movement of the parallel planes. Weak bonding between the planes provides low shear strength in the direction of the sliding movement but high compression strength in the direction perpendicular to the sliding movement. Friction forces cause the graphite particles to orient in the direction, in which the graphenes are parallel to the sliding movement. The anisotropy of the mechanical properties imparts the combination of low coefficient of friction and high carrying load capacity to graphite. Graphite forms a lubrication film strongly adhered to the substrate surface. The lubrication film provides good wear resistance and seizure resistance (compatibility). Lubricating properties of graphite are highly dependent on the presence of water vapor in the ambient atmosphere. Water molecules are absorbed on the graphite surface causing further reduction of the bonding between the graphene planes. Coefficient of friction of graphite in a moist atmosphere is as low as 0.07. Coefficient of friction of graphite in dry atmosphere or in vacuum reaches 0.5. Application of graphite as solid lubricant in open air at elevated temperatures is limited to 900F (482C). Higher temperatures cause oxidation of graphite and increase of its coefficient of friction.

Some applications of graphite as solid lubricant:

Additives in lubricating oils Carbon brushes including copper-graphite and silver-graphite impregnated composites Components of polymer based composite anti-friction coatings Second phase particles of metal based composite anti-friction coatings Molds for continuous casting Solid lubricant in metal forming Bronze-graphite composites for sliding bearings

Release coatings and non-sticking refractory linings in foundry

Melting furnaces Cupola furnace Electric Arc furnace Induction furnace Crucible furnace

Cupola furnace
The most popular melting furnace in the ferrous foundries is cupola furnace. Cupola is similar to the blast furnace. It is shaft-like vertical furnace consisting of a steel shell lined with refractory bricks, equipped with tuyeres (nozzles for blowing air). The liquid iron is periodically (or continuously) removed through a spout. Iron, coke and limestone flux are charged by means of an opening locating in the upper half of the steel shell.

Ferrous foundries also use arc furnaces for melting iron and steel.

Electric Arc furnace

The Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) uses three vertical carbon rods as electrodes for producing arcs, striking on to the charge and heating it to the required temperature.

Induction furnace
Induction furnaces are widely used for melting non-ferrous and ferrous alloys. There are two types of induction furnaces: coreless induction furnaces and channel induction furnaces: Coreless induction furnace

Coreless induction furnace consists of: a water cooled helical coil made of a copper tube, a crucible installed within the coil and supporting shell equipped with trunnions on which the furnace may tilt. Alternating current passing through the coil induces alternating currents in the metal charge loaded to the crucible. These induced currents heat the charge. When the charge is molten, electromagnetic field produced by the coil interacts with the electromagnetic field produced by the induced current. The resulted force causes stirring effect helping homogenizing the melt composition and the temperature. The frequency of the alternating current used in induction furnaces may vary from the line frequency (50Hz or 60Hz) to high frequency 10,000Hz Channel induction furnace

Channel type induction furnace consists of a steel shell lined with refractory materials and an inductor attached to the shell. There is a channel connecting the main body with the inductor. The inductor of the channel furnace works as a transformer. It has a ring-like iron core with a water- or air-cooled coil as a primary coil and a loop of the melt, circulating in the channel, as a secondary coil. Melt circulation has a stirring effect.

Channel induction furnaces work at line frequency currents. Channel induction furnaces are commonly used as holding furnaces (furnace for maintaining a molten metal, poured from a melting furnace, at a proper temperature). Channel furnaces are also used for melting low melting point alloys and iron. For two or three shift operation channel furnaces are more economical than coreless furnaces. Channel furnaces of ratings up to the 10s of MW and up to capacities of thousands of tonnes have been used for melting and superheating iron. Crucible furnace

Crucible furnaces are used for melting and holding small batches of non-ferrous alloys. Crucible furnaces are the oldest type of melting furnaces. A refractory crucible filled with the metal is heated through the crucible wall. There are two main types of crucible furnace: electricity resistance furnaces, gas (oil) fired furnaces.

In the gas fired furnaces heat is provided by a burner directed to the crucible. In the resistance furnaces electric heating elements are used as a source of heat. Sand casting Sand casting is a method involving pouring a molten metal into a sand mold. Advantages and disadvantages of sand casting Sand casting mold Types of sand used for sand casting Patterns for sand casting

Advantages and disadvantages of sand casting Advantages of sand casting

Low cost of mold materials and equipment. Large casting dimensions may be obtained. Wide variety of metals and alloys (ferrous and non-ferrous) may be cast (including high melting point metals).

Disadvantages:
Rough surface. Poor dimensional accuracy. High machining tolerances. Coarse Grain structure. Limited wall thickness: not higher than 0.1-0.2 (2.5-5 mm).

Sand casting mold

The typical mold for a sand casting is shown in the picture:

The set of channels through which a molten metal flows to the mold cavity is called gating system. Typical gating system consists of a pouring cup and a sprue receiving the poured melt, runner a channel through which the melt is supplied to the gates through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity. A gating system may include a riser (feed head) a cavity connected to the gating system feeding the casting when it is shrinking. Air within the mold cavity and gases formed when a molten metal contacts the mold surface are removed through the vents. The interior cavities of a casting are formed by a separate inserts called cores. Cores are usually made of sand and backed. A mold frame (flask) consists of two parts: cope (the upper part) and drag (the lower part). A mold cavity is formed in the process of pattern molding, when the pattern (commonly wooden) is embedded in sand in the flask forming an impression of the casting. After the sand packing the pattern is removed from the flask and the cores and the gating system are arranged. Cores, runner and gates are arranged in the drag; pouring cap and sprue are placed in the cope. Then the two parts of the mold are assembled and poured.

After the metal has solidified and cooled to a desired temperature, the casting is removed from the mold by the process called shakeout.

Types of sand used for sand casting Factors determined by sand:

Casting surface finish. Gas permeability of the mold. Mold strength.

Requirements to sand:
Ability to retain mold shape during packing and pouring. High temperature stability. Permeability for the gases liberated from the mold and solidifying metal. Collapsibility - ability of the sand to be shake out.

Silica sand with additives is used for sand casting.

Types of sand:
Green sand - a mixture of silica sand (quartz) with 4-15% of a clay (bonding agent), about 5% of water and some other additives (iron silicates, zircon, chromites). The green sand is prepared from silica sand, water and a certain quantity of a clay (bentonite, kaolin). Green sand is the most popular sand type. Resin bonded sand - a mixture of silica sand with a polymeric resin as the bonding agent. If the resin hardens at room temperature the mixture is called no bake. Sodium silicate bonded sand - a mixture of silica sand with 3-4% of sodium silicate (waterglass, NaO*nSiO2*mH2O). The bonding forms when sodium silicate reacts with CO2, which is applied to the mixture: NaO*nSiO2 + CO2 = Na2CO3 + SiO2. The mixture is called no bake since the binding process does not require heat treatment (baking). Sodium silicate bonded sand is widely used for the preparation of cores. The main disadvantage of sodium silicate bonded sands is their bad collapsibility.

Patterns for sand casting

In order to be used repeatedly patterns are made of relatively tough materials.

Patterns materials:
Wood Metal Plastic 3D Rapid Prototype printing

A parting (release) agent is applied on the pattern surface in order to provide easy removal of the pattern from the mold. Patterns may be made as one-piece or multiple-piece (split, match plate). Patterns are commonly made larger than the casting because of the shrinkage effect. Shrinkage allowances are usually 1-2%. The pattern surfaces are never made perpendicular to the mold parting surface. The taper of the pattern surface, which provides narrowing the mold cavity towards the mold parting surface is called draft. Draft allows easy removal of the pattern and the casting from the sand mold. The draft angle is commonly 1-3%. Boron nitride as solid lubricant Boron nitride may exist in two forms of crystal lattice: cubic and hexagonal. Due to its tight diamond-like structure cubic boron nitride is extremely hard. It has poor lubrication properties and is used in cutting and abrasive tools as a diamond substitute. Hexagonal boron nitride (HBN) is a solid lubricant relating to the class of Inorganic lubricants with lamellar structure, which also includes molybdenum disulphide, graphite and some other sulphides, selenides and tellurides (chalcogenides) of molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum and titanium. The crystal lattice of hexagonal boron nitride consists of hexagonal rings forming thin parallel planes. Atoms of boron (B) and nitrogen (N) are covalently bonded to other atoms in the plane with the angle 120 between two bonds (each boron atom is bonded to three nitrogen atoms and each nitrogen atom is bonded to three boron atoms). The planes are bonded to each other by weak Van der Waals forces.

The layered structure allows sliding movement of the parallel planes. Weak bonding between the planes provides low shear strength in the direction of the sliding movement but high compression strength in the direction perpendicular to the sliding movement. Friction forces cause the particles of boron nitride to orient in the direction, in which the planes are parallel to the sliding movement. The anisotropy of the mechanical properties imparts the combination of low coefficient of friction and high carrying load capacity to boron nitride. Boron nitride forms a lubrication film strongly adhered to the substrate surface. The lubrication film provides good wear resistance and seizure resistance (compatibility). Similar to molibdenum disulfide moist atmosphere is not required for lubrication by boron nitride. It demonstrates low friction in dry atmosphere and in vacuum.

Coefficient of friction of boron nitride is within the range 0.1-0.7, which is similar to that of graphite and molybdenum disulfide. Impurities (eg. boron oxide) exert adverse effect on the lubrication properties of boron nitride. Boron nitride is chemically inert substance. It is non-reactive to most acids, alkalis, solvents and non-wetted by molten aluminum, magnesium, molten salts and glass. The main advantage of boron nitride as compared to graphite and molybdenum disulfide is its thermal stability. Hexagonal boron nitride retains its lubrication properties up to 5000F (2760C) in inert or reducing environment and up to 1600F (870C) in oxidizing atmosphere. Boron nitride has high thermal conductivity.

Some applications of hexagonal boron nitride:

Additives in lubricating oils Components of polymer based composite anti-friction coatings Second phase particles of metal based composite anti-friction coatings Solid lubricant in metal forming Release coatings and non-sticking refractory linings in foundry Sintered ceramic parts for high temperature applications

Squeeze casting Squeeze casting is a method combining casting and forging technologies. In contrast to other casting techniques (sand casting, die casting), in which a molten metal is poured (injected) into the mold cavity after the two parts ofthe mold are assembled, squeeze casting mold is closed after a portion of molten metal has been poured into the preheated bottom die. The upper die lowers towards the bottom die causing the melt to fill the mold cavity. The squeezing pressure is applied until full solidification of the casting. A scheme of the process is shown in the picture:

Squeeze castings are characterized by:

low shrinkage and gas porosity; enhanced mechanical properties because of fine grain structure caused by rapid solidification; good surface quality.

Squeeze casting is commonly used for processing aluminum and magnesium alloys. This process is also used for fabrication of reinforced metal matrix composites where molten aluminum infiltrates a fiber reinforcing structure. Investment casting Investment (lost wax) casting is a method of precision casting complex near-net-shape details using replication of wax patterns. Investment casting process Ceramic slurry materials Advantages and disadvantages of investment casting

Investment casting process

The investment casting process uses expendable patterns made of investment casting wax. The wax patterns are commonly prepared by injection molding technology which involves injection of wax into a prefabricated die having the same geometry of the cavity as the desired cast part. The wax patterns are then attached to a gating system (a set of channels through which a molten metal flows to the mold cavity). The next stage is the shell building - the wax assembly is immersed into refractory ceramic slurry of hardening mixtures followed by drying. This operation is repeatedly carried out resulting in formation of a solid ceramic shell of 1/4 -3/8 (6mm 9mm) thick. The next stage is dewax. At this stage the assembly is heated in an autoclave where the most of the wax is melted out. This operation is followed by burning out the residual wax in a furnace. The mold is then preheated to 1830F (1000C). Now the mold is ready for filling with a molten metal. Casting stage is conventional operation involving pouring a molten metal into the shell through the gating system. After the metal has solidified and cooled to a desired temperature, the shell is broken and the castings are cut away from the gates and sprue. The last stage is finishing carried out by sandblasting or machining.

Ceramic slurry materials

Mullite Al2O3 44-48%, SiO2 47-51%, Fe2O3 max. 1%, TiO2 max. 1%. Zircon flour. Binders: Colloidal Silica SiO2 25-45%, Na2O max.1% in distilled water; sodium silicate NaO*nSiO2*mH2O; ethyl silicate Si(OC2H5)4.

Advantages and disadvantages of investment casting Advantages:

Excellent surface finish.

Tight dimensional tolerances. Complex and intricate shapes may be produced. Capability to cast thin walls. Wide variety of metals and alloys (ferrous and non-ferrous) may be cast. Draft is not required in the molds design. Low material waste.

Disadvantages:
Individual pattern is required for each casting. Limited casting dimensions. Relatively high cost (tooling cost, labor cost).