Teaching Reading

Teaching Reading
Topics for discussion: 1. How do people read? 2. What do people read? 3. What are the skills involved in reading? 4. Principles for teaching reading 5. Common types of activities in teaching reading

For the responses of the author of the book, please see pp. 185-6

The nature of reading

Reading aloud Manner Speed Purpose Skills involved Usually slow Usually to information Pronunciation intonation Silent reading Usually fast share Usually to get information and Skimming, scanning, predicting; Guessing unknown words; Understanding details; Understanding relations between sentences and between paragraphs; Understanding references; Understanding inferences Individual activity Utterance of every word Silent

Activity type Collective activity

Management Easy to manage as it Difficult to manage as teachers in the can be observed and cannot see what is going on in the classroom heard students minds

Effective readers: have a clear purpose in reading; read silently; read phrase by phrase, rather than word by word; concentrate on the important bits, skim the rest, and skip the insignificant parts; use different speeds and strategies for different reading tasks; perceive the information in the target language rather than mentally translate; guess the meaning of new words from the context, or ignore them; have and use background information to help understand the text.

What do effective readers do?

What do we read?
We believe ESL/EFL reading textbooks should have a great variety of authentic materials, as much as the coverage allows. Of course, textbooks should always be supplemented by extra materials. A list of things we read in daily life:

Calendars
Addresses Phone books Name cards

Clothes size labels

Graffiti on walls Childrens scribbling Informa1 letters

Magazines
Radio/TV guides Advertisements Posters

Bank statements
Credit cards Maps Anecdotes

Business letters
Rules and regulations Electronic mail Telegrams

Travel guides
Cookbooks Repair manuals Memos

Weather forecast
Pamphlets Product labels Washing instructions

Fax messages
Junk mail Postcards Credit cards

Time schedules
Street signs Syllabi Journal articles

Short stories
Novels Plays Poems

Comic books
Newspapers Diplomas Application forms

Song lyrics
Film subtitles Diagrams Flowcharts

Handbooks

Store catalogues

Name tags
(adapted from Gebhard 1996:189)

 It is important for ESL/EFL teachers to bear in mind what we read in real life, so that when we select reading materials for our ESL/EFL classroom, we not only have a greater variety but also meet the needs of different students.

 Besides authentic texts, ESL/EFL textbooks also employ a lot of non-authentic texts, i.e. simulated text. Simulated texts are aimed for beginner students who are probably not able to handle genuine authentic text. It is believed that the reading of such texts will help students to acquire the necessary receptive skills they will need when they eventually come to tackle authentic materials (Harmer, 1983).

Skills involved in reading comprehension

Two broad levels in reading: Visual signal from the eyes A cognitive task of interpreting the visual information, relating the received information with the readers own general knowledge, and reconstructing the meaning that the writer had meant to convey.

Visual signal

Writers meaning

Visual information

Readers knowledge

Readers reconstruction

Skills needed in reading

Recognising the script of a language; Understanding the explicitly stated information; Understanding conceptual meaning; Understanding the communicative value (function) of sentences; Deducing the meaning of unfamiliar lexical items; -

 Understanding relations within sentences; Understanding references; Recognising indicators in discourse; Recognising the organization of the text; Making inferences.

Strategic skills needed in reading

Distinguishing the main idea from supporting details; Skimming: reading for the gist or main idea; Scanning: reading to look for specific information; Predicting: guessing what is coming next;

Principles for teaching reading: The texts and tasks should be accessible to the students. Tasks should be clearly given in advance. Tasks should be designed to encourage reading for the main meaning rather than test the students understanding of trivial details. Tasks should help develop students reading skills and strategies rather than test their reading comprehension. Teachers should help the students to read on their own, so that they eventually become independent readers.

Principles and models for teaching reading

Models for teaching reading

The Bottom-up Model The Top-down Model The Interactive Model

The Bottom-up Model

This model of teaching reading is based on the theory in which reading (and listening, too) is regarded as a process of decoding, which moves from the bottom to the top of the system of language.

The Bottom-up Model

Discourses Sentences/ Phrases Words Morphemes Phonemes

Linguistic knowledge is used.

 In the Bottom-up Model, the teacher teaches reading by introducing vocabulary and new words first and then going over the text sentence by sentence. This is followed by some questions and answers and reading aloud practice.

The Top-down Model

This model of teaching reading is based on the theory in which reading is regarded as a prediction-check process, a psycholinguistic guessing game (Goodman, 1970). In the Top-down Model, not only linguistic knowledge but also background knowledge is involved in reading.

The Top-down Model

Linguistic Knowledge &

Background Knowledge

Discourses Sentences/ Phrases Words Morphemes Phonemes

The Top-down Model

Therefore, it is believed that in teaching reading, the teacher should teach the background knowledge first, so that students equipped with such knowledge will be able to guess meaning from the printed page.

The Interactive Model

This model of teaching reading is based on the theory in which reading is viewed as an interactive process.

 According to the Interactive Model of reading (also called as the Schema Theory Model), when one is reading, the brain receives visual information, and at the same time, interprets or reconstructs the meaning that the writer had in mind when he wrote the text. This process does not only involve the printed page but also the readers knowledge of the language in general, of the world, and of the text types.

The Interactive Model

Schemata to be activated the schema of language; the schema of content; the schema of forms

Discourses Sentences/ Phrases Words Morphemes Phonemes

The Interactive Model

Based on such understanding, teaching reading in the classroom divides reading activities into basically three stages, in which bottom-up and topdown techniques are integrated to help students in their reading comprehension and in increasing their language efficiency in general.

 The three stages are pre-reading, while-reading, and post-reading.

Pre-reading activities
The purpose of pre-reading (also called Lead-in) is to facilitate whilereading activities. predicting, setting the scene, skimming, and scanning

Predicting
Predicting will get the readers mind closer to the theme of the text. Ways of predicting: predicting based on the title, predicting based on vocabulary, predicting based on the T/F questions.

Predicting based on the title

A Nation of Pet-Lovers
Save the Jungle: Save the World Police Hunt for Child

If the students are not good at predicting, the teacher can help them by asking certain questions. Text 1: What is a pet? What are pets for? Why do people love pets? Are there any problems with pets? Text 2: What is a jungle? Where can you find jungles? What do you think has happened to the jungle? Text 3: What happened to the child? How do you think the parents would feel? What could the police do?

Predicting based on vocabulary

Having made predictions based on the title, students can be asked to predict some lexical items that they think are likely to occur in the text. Then the students read the text to confirm their predictions. A variation of this prediction activity is that the teacher provides students with a list of words, and asks the students to predict which of the words are used in the text, and to read the text and confirm their predictions.

Predicting based on the T/F questions

e.g. Reading How to behave at a job interview

(p. 120) (For the text please see pp. Before After 193-4.) reading reading Always try to please the interviewer. Do not try to dominate the interviewer. Never interrupt the interviewer.
If necessary, disagree with the interviewer. Never change your mind. Always try to please the interviewer.

Setting the scene

Setting the scene means getting the students familiar with the cultural and social background knowledge relevant to the reading text. The culture-bound aspect of the text can start at the beginning with the title. e.g.:

 The culture-bound aspects of a text are often of great interest to students, and they can be used to provoke an interesting discussion not only about the other culture, but also about the home culture. (e.g. Eskimos, p.121)

ESKIMOS Eskimos love in the polar areas between latitude 66 N and the North Pole. There are Eskimos in Northern Canada, Greenland and Siberia. This means that they are the only people who have their origins both in the Old World (Europe an Asia) and in the new world (America). It is difficult to make an accurate estimate but there are probably about 50,000 Eskimos. Eskimos are not usually tall but they have powerful legs and shoulders they have a yellowish skin and straight black are. Eskimos have a common language and can understand members of another group although they may come from many thousands of miles away. The most important unit in Eskimo society is the family. Marriage is by mutual consent: the Eskimos do not have a special marriage ceremony. In the Eskimo community, the m0st important people are the older man. They control the affairs of the group. The economic system of the Eskimo communities works like a commune: they share almost everything. Eskimos live by hunting, fishing and trapping. When they go to hunt seals, they sail in Kayaks (light boats made from skins) and when they hunt animals, they travel across the ice in sleds pulled by teams of dogs. The Eskimo snow house is very well known, but, in fact, Eskimos usually live in houses made of wood and turf. When they are not hunting and working, Eskimos like to carve: they use ivory and wood and they often make very beautiful objects.

Skimming
Skimming means reading quickly to get the gist, i.e. the main idea of the text. Some suggestions: Ask general questions. e.g. Why did the writer write the article? Ask the students to choose a statement from 3-4 statements. Ask the students to put subtitles for different parts of the text into the right order. e.g.:

Headings: Where can we put it?

Confirming Action Greetings Interrupting without insult Closing the call Getting to the point

Text
Top tips for telephone English If you're looking for a challenging situation to practice your English, just pick up the telephone. Not being able to see the person you're talking to and the body language they're using can make chatting on the phone one of the most difficult forms of communication. Never fear, though! We've compiled some tips to guide you through an average telephone conversation in English.

(Which heading should be here?) Every phone call should begin with a polite greeting such as, Hi, how've you been? or Nice to hear from you. Even if you're calling a business contact for a specific purpose, it'd be rude to jump right into business without a little small talk at the beginning.

(Which heading should be here?) There always comes the point, however, where you want to move on from friendly banter and get down to business. For this situation, use the phrase I'm just calling to ... to transition to the topic at hand. For example, I'm just calling to see if you'd like to set up a meeting. If the situation is reversed, however, and you are waiting to find out why someone called you, you can guide the conversation by saying, So what can I do for you?

(Which heading should be here?) If you happen to be speaking with a very talkative person, it may be difficult to get a word in edgewise or contribute to the conversation. If someone is going on and on, and you'd like to interrupt, be sure to do it politely. For example, begin with I would like to say something here, if I may or Allow me to make a point. Or, you could just ask: May I interrupt you for a second? If you're making plans on the phone, be sure to confirm the details toward the end of the call. Begin with phrases like Please let me confirm... and So, let me make sure I've got things straight... and follow up with the details as you understand them.

(Which heading should be here?) Sometimes this can be the trickiest part of the conversation! It may be the time to offer some good wishes, such as good luck on that interview or hope you feel better soon if it's appropriate. Additionally, you may want to confirm any plans you've made: I'll see you on Friday, then. Sometimes it's easiest to just say you enjoyed speaking to the other person. Also, keep in mind that strategically saying the word well at the beginning of a sentence can indicate that you are ready to end the conversation: Well John, it's been a pleasure talking to you.

Scanning
Scanning means to read to locate specific information. The key point in scanning is that the reader has something in his mind and he or she should ignore the irrelevant parts when reading.

 Questions for a scanning activity are often about specific information. We can also ask students to scan for vocabulary.
We can pre-teach some words within the semantic area of the theme. This does not mean that we are teaching reading following a Bottomup model, because the schema of content is activated after the students have scanned the text.

 We can also ask students to scan for certain structures, e.g. tense forms, discourse connectors, particular sentence structures.

Something to bear in mind when conducting scanning

Set a time limit. Give clear instructions. Wait until 70% of the students finish. Make clear how you are going to get feedback. Answers to the scanning questions should be scattered throughout the text rather than clustered at one place.

While-reading activities
While-reading activities focus on the process of understanding rather than the result of reading. Information transfer activities Reading comprehension questions Understanding references Making inferences

Information transfer activities using transition devices

Transition device: A way to transfer information from one form, e.g. the text form, to another, e.g. a visual form.
Sophisticated Input (SI) Transition Device (TD)
Output (OP)

Transition devices can be used to make information in text form effectively processed and retained.

Some transition devices

Pictures, drawings, maps, tables, tree diagrams, cyclic diagrams, pie charts, bar charts, flow charts, chronological sequence, subtitles (providing subtitles), notes (taking notes while reading), etc.

Bar chart
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Pie chart
Output 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Examples of using transition devices

Example 1 Read the following passage and complete the table, which compares the two earthquakes.

At 5:13 on the morning of April 18th, 1906, they city of San Francisco was shaken by a terrible earthquake. A great part of the city was destroyed and a large number of buildings were burnt. The umber of people who lost their homes reached as many as 250 000. About 700 people died in the earthquake and the fires. Another earthquake shook San Francisco on October 17th, 1989. It was Americas second strongest earthquake and about 100 people were killed. It happened in the evening as people were travelling home. A wide and busy road, which was built like a bridge over another road, fell onto the one below. Many people were killed in the cars, but a few lucky ones were not hurt. Luckily the 1989 earthquake did not happen in the centre of town but about 50 kilometres away. In one part of the town a great may buildings were destroyed. These buildings were over 50 years old, so they were not strong enough. There were a lot of fires all over the city. The electricity was cut of for several days too.

Number of Time Date Location people Damage killed Earthquake in 1906 Earthquake in 1989

It is important that students fill in the table while they are reading rather than after they finish reading. Then a follow-up output activity can be conducted based on the results. e.g.: The teacher can ask questions like Which earthquake caused more damage and why?

Example 2

Summary on transition devices

The purposes of TDs: Focus on the main meaning. Simplify sophisticated input. Allow students to perform while reading. Highlight the main structural organization, and show how the structure relates to meaning. Involve all students. Go step by step. Conduct follow-up activities for oral and written output.

Reading comprehension questions

Questions for literal comprehension. (Answers directly and explicitly available in the text) Questions involving reorganization or reinterpretation. (Require Ss to obtain literal information from various parts of the text and put it together or reinterpret it) Questions for inferences. (what is not explicitly stated but implied) -

 Questions for evaluation or appreciation. (making a judgement about the text in terms of what the writer is trying to convey) Questions for personal responses. (readers reaction to the content of the text)

Understanding references
All natural language, spoken or written, uses referential word such as pronouns to refers to people or things already mentioned previously in the context. e.g.

Making inferences
Making inferences means reading between the lines, which requires the reader to use background knowledge in order to infer the implied meaning of the author. e.g. What can you infer from the following?

 Blandida is a country which has every climatic condition known to man. When she came into the room, the large crowd grew silent. The painting had been in the family for years, but sadly Bill realised he would have to sell it.

Post-reading activities
Post-reading tasks should provide the students with opportunities to relate what they have read to what they already know or what they feel. In addition, post-reading task should enable students to produce language based on what they have learned. e.g.

Discussion questions
Do you think he was a good doctor? How do you think the young man felt?

Reproducing the text

Tell part of the story from these prompts: A doctor village annoyed. People stop street advice. Never paid never money made up his mind put and end

Role Play
1. Act out the conversation between the doctor and the young man. 2. Act out an interview between a journalist and the doctor.

Gap-filling
One day the doctor ________ by a young man. The doctor _________ to be interested. He felt the young man __________ in the street with his tongue ______ out.

False summary

The teacher provides a summary with some wrong information, and asks the students to correct it.

Writing

Writing based on what the students have read, e.g. producing a tourist brochure, an advertisement, a short summary, etc.

Conclusion
The teaching of reading should focus on developing students reading skills and strategies rather than testing students reading comprehension. We should view reading as an interactive process. Reading in the classroom can be divided into 3 stages: pre-reading activities, while-reading activities, and post-reading activities.