Chapter2 86

Chapter 2: The Microprocessor and its Architecture
Introduction
This chapter presents the microprocessor as a programmable device by first looking at its internal programming model and then how its memory space is addressed. The architecture of Intel microprocessors is presented, as are the ways that the family members address the memory system. Addressing modes for this powerful family of microprocessors are described for the real, protected, and flat modes of operation.
The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,
Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey
Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Chapter Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
Describe function and purpose of each program-visible register in the 8086-Core2 microprocessors, including 64-bit extensions. Detail the flag register and the purpose of each flag bit. Describe how memory is accessed using real mode memory-addressing techniques.

Chapter Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
(cont.)
Describe how memory is accessed using protected mode memory-addressing techniques. Describe how memory is accessed using the 64-bit flat memory model. Describe program-invisible registers found in the 80286 through Core2 microprocessors. Detail the operation of the memory-paging mechanism.
21 INTERNAL MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE

Before a program is written or instruction investigated, internal configuration of the microprocessor must be known. In a multiple core microprocessor each core contains the same programming model. Each core runs a separate task or thread simultaneously.

A thread consists of a program counter, a register set, and a stack space. A task shares with peer threads its code section, data section, and operating system resources

The Programming Model

8086 through Core2 considered program visible.
registers are used during programming and are specified by the instructions
Other registers considered to be program invisible.

not addressable directly during applications programming

80286 and above contain program-invisible registers to control and operate protected memory.
and other features of the microprocessor
80386 through Core2 microprocessors contain full 32-bit internal architectures. 8086 through the 80286 are fully upwardcompatible to the 80386 through Core2. Figure 21 illustrates the programming model 8086 through Core2 microprocessor.
including the 64-bit extensions
Figure 21 The programming model of the 8086 through the Core2 microprocessor including the 64-bit extensions.

Multipurpose Registers
RAX - a 64-bit register (RAX), a 32-bit register (accumulator) (EAX), a 16-bit register (AX), or as either of two 8-bit registers (AH and AL).
The accumulator is used for instructions such as multiplication, division, and some of the adjustment instructions. Intel plans to expand the address bus to 52 bits to address 4P (252~1015 =peta) bytes of memory.
RBX, addressable as RBX, EBX, BX, BH, BL.

BX register (base index) sometimes holds offset address of a location in the memory system in all versions of the microprocessor
RCX, as RCX, ECX, CX, CH, or CL.

a (count) general-purpose register that also holds the count for various instructions
RDX, as RDX, EDX, DX, DH, or DL.

a (data) general-purpose register holds a part of the result from a multiplication or part of dividend before a division
RBP, as RBP, EBP, or BP.

points to a memory (base pointer) location for memory data transfers
RDI addressable as RDI, EDI, or DI.

often addresses (destination index) string destination data for the string instructions
RSI used as RSI, ESI, or SI.

the (source index) register addresses source string data for the string instructions like RDI, RSI also functions as a generalpurpose register
Special-Purpose Registers
Include RIP, RSP, and RFLAGS
segment registers include CS, DS, ES, SS, FS, and GS
RIP addresses the next instruction in a section of memory.

defined as (instruction pointer) a code segment
RSP addresses an area of memory called the stack.

the (stack pointer) stores data through this pointer
RFLAGS indicate the condition of the microprocessor and control its operation. Figure 22 shows the flag registers of all versions of the microprocessor. Flags are upward-compatible from the 8086/8088 through Core2 . The rightmost five and the overflow flag are changed by most arithmetic and logic operations.
although data transfers do not affect them
Figure 22 The EFLAG and FLAG register counts for the entire 8086 and Pentium microprocessor family.
Flags never change for any data transfer or program control operation. Some of the flags are also used to control features found in the microprocessor.
Flag bits, with a brief description of function. C (carry) holds the carry after addition or borrow after subtraction.
also indicates error conditions
P (parity) is the count of ones in a number expressed as even or odd. Logic 0 for odd parity; logic 1 for even parity.
if a number contains three binary one bits, it has odd parity if a number contains no one bits, it has even parity
List of Each Flag bit, with a brief description of function.

C (carry) holds the carry after addition or borrow after subtraction.
also indicates error conditions
P (parity) is the count of ones in a number expressed as even or odd. Logic 0 for odd parity; logic 1 for even parity.
if a number contains three binary one bits, it has odd parity; If a number contains no one bits, it has even parity
A (auxiliary carry) holds the carry (half-carry) after addition or the borrow after subtraction between bit positions 3 and 4 of the result. Z (zero) shows that the result of an arithmetic or logic operation is zero. S (sign) flag holds the arithmetic sign of the result after an arithmetic or logic instruction executes. T (trap) The trap flag enables trapping through an on-chip debugging feature.
I (interrupt) controls operation of the INTR (interrupt request) input pin. D (direction) selects increment or decrement mode for the DI and/or SI registers. O (overflow) occurs when signed numbers are added or subtracted.
an overflow indicates the result has exceeded the capacity of the machine

Segment Registers
Generate memory addresses when combined with other registers in the microprocessor. Four or six segment registers in various versions of the microprocessor. A segment register functions differently in real mode than in protected mode. Following is a list of each segment register, along with its function in the system.

CS (code) segment holds code (programs and procedures) used by the microprocessor. DS (data) contains most data used by a program.
Data are accessed by an offset address or contents of other registers that hold the offset address
ES (extra) an additional data segment used by some instructions to hold destination data.

SS (stack) defines the area of memory used for the stack.

stack entry point is determined by the stack segment and stack pointer registers the BP register also addresses data within the stack segment

22 REAL MODE MEMORY ADDRESSING

80286 and above operate in either the real or protected mode. Real mode operation allows addressing of only the first 1M byte of memory spaceeven in Pentium 4 or Core2 microprocessor.
the first 1M byte of memory is called the real memory, conventional memory, or DOS memory system
Segments and Offsets

All real mode memory addresses must consist of a segment address plus an offset address.
segment address defines the beginning address of any 64K-byte memory segment offset address selects any location within the 64K byte memory segment
Figure 23 shows how the segment plus offset addressing scheme selects a memory location.
Figure 23 The real mode memory-addressing scheme, using a segment address plus an offset.
this shows a memory segment beginning at 10000H, ending at location IFFFFH

64K bytes in length
also shows how an offset address, called a displacement, of F000H selects location 1F000H in the memory
Once the beginning address is known, the ending address is found by adding FFFFH.
because a real mode segment of memory is64K in length
The offset address is always added to the segment starting address to locate the data. Segment and offset address is sometimes written as 1000:2000.
a segment address of 1000H; an offset of 2000H

Default Segment and Offset Registers

The microprocessor has rules that apply to segments whenever memory is addressed.
these define the segment and offset register combination
The code segment register defines the start of the code segment. The instruction pointer locates the next instruction within the code segment.
Another of the default combinations is the stack.

stack data are referenced through the stack segment at the memory location addressed by either the stack pointer (SP/ESP) or the pointer (BP/EBP)
Figure 24 shows a system that contains four memory segments.

a memory segment can touch or overlap if 64K bytes of memory are not required for a segment

Figure 24 A memory system showing the placement of four memory segments.
think of segments as Windows that can be moved over any area of memory to access data or code a program can have more than four or six segments,
but only access four or six segments at a time

Figure 25 An application program containing a code, data, and stack segment loaded into a DOS system memory.
a program placed in memory by DOS is loaded in the TPA at the first available area of memory above drivers and other TPA programs area is indicated by a freepointer maintained by DOS program loading is handled automatically by the program loader within DOS
TPA
The transient program area (TPA) holds the DOS (disk operating system) operating system; other programs that control the computer system.

Segment and Offset Addressing Scheme Allows Relocation

Segment plus offset addressing allows DOS programs to be relocated in memory. A relocatable program is one that can be placed into any area of memory and executed without change. Relocatable data are data that can be placed in any area of memory and used without any change to the program.
Because memory is addressed within a segment by an offset address, the memory segment can be moved to any place in the memory system without changing any of the offset addresses. Only the contents of the segment register must be changed to address the program in the new area of memory. Windows programs are written assuming that the first 2G of memory are available for code and data.

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Chapter 2: The Microprocessor and its Architecture

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

21 INTERNAL MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

The Programming Model

Other registers considered to be program invisible.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

RBX, addressable as RBX, EBX, BX, BH, BL.

RCX, as RCX, ECX, CX, CH, or CL.

RDX, as RDX, EDX, DX, DH, or DL.

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

RBP, as RBP, EBP, or BP.

RDI addressable as RDI, EDI, or DI.

RSI used as RSI, ESI, or SI.

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

RIP addresses the next instruction in a section of memory.

RSP addresses an area of memory called the stack.

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

List of Each Flag bit, with a brief description of function.

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

SS (stack) defines the area of memory used for the stack.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

22 REAL MODE MEMORY ADDRESSING

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

Segments and Offsets

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

this shows a memory segment beginning at 10000H, ending at location IFFFFH

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

Default Segment and Offset Registers

Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey

Another of the default combinations is the stack.

Figure 24 shows a system that contains four memory segments.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,