Underwater Communications

Milica Stojanovic Massachusetts Institute of Technology millitsa@mit.edu

Future systems / requirements

Today: point-to-point acoustic links Future: autonomous networks for ocean observation Examples of future networks: ad hoc deployable sensor networks autonomous fleets of cooperating AUVs

NSF ITR: Acoustic networks, navigation and sensing for multiple autonomous underwater robotic vehicles.

Types of nodes: fixed, slowly moving, mobile sensors, relays, gateways Types of signals, system requirements: low/high rate (~100 bps-100kbps) real-time/non real-time high/moderate reliability Configurations: stand alone integrated (e.g., cabled observatories)

Overview
Channel characteristics Signal processing: bandwidth-efficient underwater acoustic communications Example: application to oil field monitoring Future research

Communication channel / summary

Physical constraints of acoustic propagation: limited, range-dependent bandwidth time-varying multipath low speed of sound (1500 m/s)
B>1/Tmp frequency-selective fading

A(d,f)~dka(f)d N(f)~Kf-b

Worst of both radio worlds (land mobile / satellite)

tt(1v/c) ff(1v/c)

System constraints: transducer bandwidth battery power half-duplex

Signal processing inp.1 for high rate inp.2 acoustic communciations

Bandwidth-efficient modulation (PSK, QAM) phase-coherent detection: synchronization inp. K equalziation multichannel combining

combiner

forward

data est.

data out

+
forward filter coefficients adaptation algorithm

decision

feedback

sync.
(JASA 95, with J.Proakis, J.Catipovic)

Ex. New England Continental Shelf, 50 n.mi, 1 kHz

training data

Example: New England Continental Shelf

Real-time underwater video?

Underwater image transmission: sequence of images (JPEG) at < 1 frame/sec MPEG-4 : 64 kbps (video conferencing) Can we achieve 100 kbps over an acoustic channel?
Compression to reduce bit rate needed for video representation High-level modulation to increase the bit rate supported by acoustic channel

Experiment: Woods Hole, 2002 6 bits/symbol (64 QAM) 150 kbps in 25 kHz bandwidth

( IEEE Oceans 03, with C.Pelekanakis)

Current achievements
Point-to-point (2/4/8PSK;8/16/64QAM) medium range (1 km-10 km ~ 10 kbps) long range (10 km 100 km ~1 kbps) basin scale (3000 km ~ 10 bps) vertical (3 km~15kbps, 10 m~150 kbps) Mobile communications AUV to AUV at 5 kbps Multi-user communications five users, each at 1.4 kbps in 5 kHz band WHOI micro-modem: Fixed point DSP low rate FSK (~100 bps) w/noncoherent detection Floating point co-processor high rate PSK (~5000 bps) w/coherent detection (adaptive DFE, Doppler tracking, coding) 4-channel input 10-50 W tx / 3W rx (active) 1.75 in x 5 in. Commercial modems: Benthos, LinkQuest.

Research in signal processing Goals: low complexity processing improved performance better bandwidth utilization Specific topics: spread spectrum communications (CDMA, LPD) multiple tx/rx elements (MIMO) multi-carrier modulation (OFDM)

Example: Application to oil-field monitoring

Example: Q: Is real-time supervisory control of the AUV possible? AUV to base range ~ 60 m. A:Not over long distances, where the propagation delay is many seconds, but possibly over short distances. Bonus: The available acoustic bandwidth is much greater over short distances. acoustic link delay = 40 ms cabled link delay = negligible acoustic band ~ several 100 kHz bit rate > 100 kbs : well within current video compression technology alternative: optical communciation high rate (Mbps) low distance ~ 10 m sea level AUV

short distance high bandwidth acoustic link

platform

base station

power, communications, oil

base station

base station

Open problems and future research

Fundamental questions: Statistical channel modeling Network capacity

Research areas: Data compression Signal processing for communications: adaptive modulation / coding channel estimation / prediction multiple in/out channels (tx/rx arrays) multi-user communications communications in hostile environment Communication networks: network layout / resource allocation and reuse network architecture / cross layer optimization network protocols: all layers
Underwater optical communications: blue-green region (450-550 nm) +much higher bandwidth (~Mbps) +negligible delay -short distance (<100 m)

Experimental networks: System specification: typical vs. application-specific (traffic patterns, performance requirements) optimization criteria (delay, throughput, reliability, energy efficiency) Concept demonstration: simulation in-water prototypes System integration: Cabled observatories Integration of wireless communications: cabled backbone + mobile nodes = extended reach Wireless extension: acoustical and optical

complementary to acoustics

Channel characteristics: Attenuation and noise

Attentuation (path loss): A(d,f)=dka(f)d
10logA(d,f)=10klog d + d 10 log a(f) spreading loss k= absorption loss
Absorption coefficient increases rapidly with frequency: fundamental bandwidth limitation.

2 spherical spreading 1.5 practical spreading 1 cylindrical spreading

Only very low frequencies propagate over long distances

Thorps formula for absorption coefficient (empirical):

10 log a(f) = 0.11 f2/(1+f2)+44 f2/(4100+f2)+0.000275 f2+0.003 dB/km, for f [kHz]

absorption fundamental limitation of maximal frequency

Noise
Site-specific: man-made biological (e.g., shrimp) ice cracking, rain seismic events

Ambient (open sea): p.s.d. [dB re Pa], f[kHz] turbulence: 17 -30 log f shipping: 40+20(s-0.5)+26log f-60log(f+0.03) surface: 50+7.5w0.5+20log f-40 log (f+0.4) thermal: -15+20 log f

Majority of ambient noise sources: continuous p.s.d. Gaussian statistics Approximation: N(f)=Kf-b noise p.s.d. decays at b=18 dB/dec

Signal to noise ratio (SNR)

PR(d,f)~PT/A(d,f) PN(f)~N(f)f

SNR(d,f) ~ - 10klog d - d10 log a(f) - b10log f

There exists an optimal center frequency for a given distance. Bandwidth is limited: lower end by noise, upper end by absorption. Additional limitation: transducer bandwidth.

Bandwidth-efficient modulation needed for high-rate communications. Many short hops offer larger bandwidth than one long hop (as well as lower energy consumption).

Multipath propagation
Multipath structure depends on the channel geometry, signal frequency, sound speed profile. Sound pressure field at any location, time, is given by the solution to the wave equation. Approximations to this solution represent models of sound propagation (deterministic). Models are used to obtain a more accurate prediction of the signal strength. Ray model provides insight into the mechanisms of multipath formation: deep waterray bending shallow waterreflections from surface, bottom, objects. c land
surface layer (mixing) const. temperature (except under ice) main thermocline temperature decreases rapidly deep ocean constant temperature (4 deg. C) pressure increases continental shelf (~100 m)

sea

continental slice

continental rise abyssal plain

depth

Sound speed increases with temperature, pressure, salinity. surf shallow deep

Mechanisms of multipath formation

Deep water: a ray, launched at some angle, bends towards the region of lower sound speed (Snells law). Continuous application of Snells law ray diagram (trace).
c
distance

Shallow water: reflections at surface have little loss; reflection loss at bottom depends on the type (sand,rock, etc.), angle of incidence, frequency.

tx

tx

rx

Multipath gets attenuated because of repeated reflection loss, increased path length.
depth

Deep sound channeling: -rays bend repeatedly towards the depth at which the sound speed is minimal -sound can travel over long distances in this manner (no reflection loss).

Length of each path can be calculated from geometry: lp: pth path length p= lp /c: pth path delay Ap=A(lp,f): pth path attenuation Gp= p/Ap1/2: path gain th p: p path reflection coefficient

Examples: ensembles of measured channel responses

Time variability: Inherent: internal waves, changes in fine vertical structure of water, small-scale turbulence, surface motion Motion-induced: v/c~10-3 at v~few knots, c=1500 m/s!

Propagation speed
Nominal: c=1500 m/s (compare to 3108 m/s!)

Two types of problems: -motion-induced Doppler distortion (v~ few m/s for an AUV) -long propagation delay / high latency

tt(1v/c) ff(1v/c)