Magnetic Properties

Iron single crystal photomicrographs

magnetic domains change shape as a magnetic field (H) is applied. domains favorably oriented with the field grow at the expense of the unfavorably oriented domains.

18.2 Basic Concepts

Magnetic forces appear when moving charges Forces can be represented by imaginary lines grouped as fields

Magnetic field lines of force around a current loop and a bar magnet.

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MAGNETIC DIPOLES
The magnetic moment represented by a vector

Magnetic Field Vectors magnetic field strength (H) & magnetic flux density (B)
B = H B0 = 0 H
relative permeability

Magnetic flux density

r = 0

B = 0 H + 0 M M = mH

magnetization

NI Magnetic field strength H = l

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magnetic susceptibility

m = r -1

Origins of Magnetic Moments: Responds to quantum mechanics laws Two main contributions: (a) an orbiting electron and (b) electron spin.

Bohr magneton (B) Most fundamental magnetic moment B = 9.27x10-24 A-m2

The spin is an intrinsic property of the electron and it is not due to its rotation

18.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism

Diamagnetic material
in the presence of a field, dipoles are induced and aligned opposite to the field direction.

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Paramagnetic material

B = 0H + 0 M = 0H + 0 mH
The flux density B versus the magnetic field strength H for diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials.

= 0 (1 + m)

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18.4 FERROMAGNETISM
mutual alignment of atomic dipoles even in the absence of an external magnetic field. coupling forces align the magnetic spins

B = 0 H + 0 M B 0 M
Domains with mutual spin alignment B grows up to a saturation magnetization Ms with a saturation flux Bs = Matom Natoms (average moment per atom times density of atoms) Matom = 2.22B, 1.72B, 0.60B for Fe, Co, Ni, respectively

Antiferromagnetism & Ferrimagnetism

ANTIFERROMAGNETISM Antiparallel alignment of spin magnetic moments for antiferromagnetic manganese oxide (MnO) At low T Above the Neel temperature they become paramagnetic

1986: superconductivity discovered in layered compound La2-xBaxCuO4 with a transition T much higher than expected. Little was known about copper oxides

Parent materials, La2CuO4, and YBa2Cu3O6, demonstrated that the CuO2 planes exhibit antiferromagnetic order. This work initiated a continuing exploration of magnetic excitations in copper-oxide superconductors, crucial to the mechanism of high-temperature superconductivity.

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FERRIMAGNETISM spin magnetic moment configuration for Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions in Fe3O4. Above the Curie temperature becomes paramagnetic

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Ferrimagnetic Materials
Ferrimagnetic materials include oxides of iron, nickel, or cobalt. The magnetic moments of adjacent atoms are aligned opposite to each other, but there is incomplete cancellation of the moments because they are not equal. Thus, there is a net magnetic moment within a domain.

Ferrimagnetic Materials
In the absence of applied magnetic field, the domains are randomly oriented so that the net macroscopic magnetization is zero. In the presence of an applied magnetic field, the domains align themselves with the applied field. The magnetic effects are weaker than in ferromagnetic materials, but are still substantial.

Ferrites

Ferrites
Ferrites are the most useful ferrimagnetic materials. Ferrites are ceramic materials containing compounds of iron. Ferrites are non-conducting magnetic media so eddy current and ohmic losses are less than for ferromagnetic materials. Ferrites are often used as transformer cores at radio frequencies (RF).

Ferrite Cores

Applications of Magnetic Ceramics

Entertainment electronics (Radio, TV) Computer Microwave applications (Radar, communication, heating) Recording Tape Permanent motor, Transformer cores

Applications of Magnetic Ceramics

Spinel (cubic ferrites): Soft magnets
Garnet (rare earth ferrites): Microwave devices Magnetoplumbite (hexagonal ferrites): Hard magnets

Applications of Ferrites
The cubic spinels, also called ferrospinels, are used as soft magnetic materials because of their very low coercive force of 4x10-5 weber/m2 and high saturation magnetization 0.3-0.4 weber/m2. (1 weber = 1 volt-second = 108 Maxwells) Flux density (induction): 1 Tesla = 104 Gauss = 1 weber/m2. (1 Gauss = 1 Maxwell/cm2). Hexagonal ferrites are hard magnetic materials with coercive force of 0.2 0.4 weber/m2 and large resistance to demagnetization, 2 3 J/m3.

Application of Garnets
Garnets are especially suited for high frequency microwave applications due to the ability to tailor properties such as magnetization, line width, gfactor, Tc, and temperature stability. The most common garnet ferrites are based upon 3Y2O3 : 5Fe2O3 or Y3Fe5O12 or YIG.

Tape Recording
Before passing over the record head, a tape passes over the erase head which applies a high amplitude, high frequency magnetic field to the tape to erase any previously recorded signal and to thoroughly randomize the magnetization of the magnetic emulsion. The gap in the erase head is wider than those in the record head; the tape stays in the field of the head longer to thoroughly erase any previously recorded signal.

Soft Magnetic Materials

Soft magnetic materials are used in devices that are subjected to alternating magnetic fields and in which energy losses must be low one familiar example consists of transformer cores. Relative area within the hysteresis loop must be small; it is characteristically thin and narrow

Consequently, a soft magnetic material must have a high initial permeability and a low coercivity. A material possessing these properties may reach its saturation magnetization with a relatively low applied field (i.e., is easily magnetized and demagnetized) and still has low hysteresis energy losses.

B-H Curve (Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials)

Application of Soft Magnetics

In the soft magnetic materials, only a small field is necessary to cause demagnetization and very small energy losses occur per cycle of hysteresis loop. This is important for applications such as transformers used in touch tone telephones or inductors or magnetic memory cores. During used a soft ferrites has its magnetic domains rapidly and easily realigned by the changing magnetic field.

Soft Magnetic Materials

The saturation field or magnetization is determined only by the composition of the material. For example, in cubic ferrites, substitution of a divalent metal ion such as Ni2+ for Fe2+ in FeOFe2O3 in will change the saturation magnetization However, susceptibility and coercivity which also influence the shape of the hysteresis curve, are sensitive to structural variables rather than to composition For example, a low value of coercivity corresponds to the easy movement of domain walls as the magnetic field changes magnitude and/or direction

Structural defects such as particles of a nonmagnetic phase or voids in the magnetic material tend to restrict the motion of domain walls, and thus increase the coercivity
Consequently, a soft magnetic material must be free of such structural defects.

Hard Magnetic Materials

In terms of hysteresis behavior, a hard magnetic material has a high remanence, coercivity, and saturation flux density, as well as a low initial permeability, and high hysteresis energy losses. The two most important characteristics relative to applications for these materials are the coercivity and what is termed the energy product, designated as (BH)max. This corresponds to the area of the largest B-H rectangle that can be constructed within the second quadrant of the hysteresis curve ; its units are kJ/m3. (BH)max represents the energy to demagnetize a permanent magnet; larger the value (BH)max , harder is the material in terms of its magnetic characteristics. Again, hysteresis behavior is related to the ease with which the magnetic domain boundaries move; by impeding domain wall motion, the coercivity and susceptibility are enhanced, such that a large external field is required for demagnetization.

B-H Curve (Hard Magnetic Materials)

Application of Hard Magnetics

A hard (or permanent) ceramic magnet achieves its magnetization during manufacture. The magnetic domains are frozen in by poling in an applied magnetic field as the material is cooled through its Tc. The materials are magnetically very hard and will retain in service the residual flux density, that remains after the strong magnetizing field has been removed. Hard ferrites are used in loudspeakers, motors.

Hard Magnetic MaterialsConventional and High Energy Materials

conventional and high energy The conventional materials have values that range between about 2 and 80 kJ/m3. These include ferromagnetic materialsmagnet steels, cunife (CuNiFe) alloys, alnico (AlNiCo) alloysas well as the hexagonal ferrites (BaO6Fe2O3). The hard magnet steels are normally alloyed with tungsten and/or chromium.

Under the proper heat-treating conditions these two elements readily combine with carbon in the steel to form tungsten and chromium carbide precipitate particles, which are especially effective in obstructing domain wall motion. For the other metal

Tape Recording
High fidelity tape recording requires a high frequency biasing signal to be applied to the tape head along with the signal to "stir" the magnetization of the tape . This is because magnetic tapes are very sensitive to their previous magnetic history, a property called hysteresis. A magnetic "image" of a sound signal can be stored on tape in the form of magnetized iron oxide or chromium dioxide granules in a magnetic emulsion. The tiny granules are fixed on a polyester film base, but the direction and extent of their magnetization can be changed to record an input signal from a tape head.

Electromagnet
Electromagnets are usually in the form of iron core solenoids. The ferromagnetic property of the iron core causes the internal magnetic domains of the iron to line up with the smaller driving magnetiv field driving produced by the current in the solenoid. The solenoid field relationship is

and k is the relative permeability of the iron, shows the magnifying effect of the iron core.

In our textbook 2.22, 1.72, 0.61

18.6 The Influence of Temperature on magnetic Behavior

TC: Curie temperature (ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic) TN: Neel temperature (antiferromagnetic)

material become paramagnetic

18.7 Domains and Hysteresis

Domains in a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material; arrows represent atomic magnetic dipoles. Within each domain, all dipoles are aligned, whereas the direction of alignment varies from one domain to another.

Gradual change in magnetic dipole orientation across a domain wall.

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B versus H

ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material initially unmagnetized Domain configurations during several stages of magnetization Saturation flux density, Bs Magnetization, Ms, initial permeability i

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Magnetic flux density versus magnetic field strength ferromagnetic material subjected to forward and reverse saturations (S & S). hysteresis loop (red) initial magnetization (blue) remanence, Br coercive force, Hc

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Comparison magnetic versus nonmagnetic

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18.12 Superconductivity
Temperature dependence of the electrical resistivity for normally conducting and superconducting materials in the vicinity of 0 K.

Critical temperature, current density, and magnetic field boundary separating superconducting and normal conducting states (schematic).

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Representation of the Meissner effect.

While in the superconducting state, a body of material (circle) excludes a magnetic field (arrows) from its interior.

The magnetic field penetrates the same body of material once it becomes normally conductive.

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SUMMARY
A magnetic field can be produced by:

--putting a current through a coil.

Magnetic induction:

--occurs when a material is subjected to a magnetic field. --is a change in magnetic moment from electrons.
Types of material response to a field are:

--ferri- or ferro-magnetic (large magnetic induction) --paramagnetic (poor magnetic induction) --diamagnetic (opposing magnetic moment) Hard magnets: large coercivity. Soft magnets: small coercivity.
Magnetic storage media:

--particulate g-Fe2O3 in polymeric film (tape or floppy) --thin film CoPtCr or CoCrTa on glass disk (hard drive)

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