Equalization in A Wideband TDMA System: - Three Basic Equalization Methods

Equalization in a
wideband TDMA system

Three basic equalization methods
Linear equalization (LE)
Decision feedback equalization (DFE)
Sequence estimation (MLSE-VA)
Example of channel estimation circuit
Three basic equalization methods (1)

Linear equalization (LE):
Performance is not very good when the frequency response
of the frequency selective channel contains deep fades.
Zero-forcing algorithm aims to eliminate the intersymbol
interference (ISI) at decision time instants (i.e. at the
center of the bit/symbol interval).
Least-mean-square (LMS) algorithm will be investigated in
greater detail in this presentation.
Recursive least-squares (RLS) algorithm offers faster
convergence, but is computationally more complex than
LMS (since matrix inversion is required).

Decision feedback equalization (DFE):
Performance better than LE, due to ISI cancellation of tails
of previously received symbols.
Decision feedback equalizer structure:
Feed-back
filter (FBF)
Input
Feed-forward
filter (FFF)
Adjustment of
filter coefficients
Output
+
Symbol
decision

Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation using
the Viterbi Algorithm (MLSE-VA):
Best performance. Operation of the Viterbi algorithm can be
visualized by means of a trellis diagram with m K-1 states,
where m is the symbol alphabet size and K is the length of
the overall channel impulse response (in samples).
State trellis
diagram
Allowed transition
between states
State
Sample time
instants
Linear equalization, zero-forcing algorithm

Basic idea:
Raised
cosine
spectrum
Z f B f H f E f
Transmitted
symbol
spectrum
Channel frequency
response
(incl. T & R filters)
Equalizer
frequency
response
B f
H f
E f
Z f
0
fs = 1/T
Zero-forcing equalizer
Transmitted
impulse
sequence
Overall
channel
Communication
channel
FIR filter contains
2N+1 coefficients
Channel impulse response
hk
r k
h k n
c k
Coefficients of
equivalent FIR filter
fk
FIR filter contains

2M+1 coefficients
Input to
decision
circuit
Equalizer impulse response
n N
Equalizer
z k
m M
M
m M
cm hk m
cm k m
( M k M )
(in fact the equivalent FIR filter consists of 2M+1+2N coefficients,

but the equalizer can only handle 2M+1 equations)
Zero-forcing equalizer
We want overall filter response
to be non-zero at decision time
k = 0 and zero at all other
sampling times k 0 :
fk
ch
m M
m k m
1, k 0
0, k 0
h0 c M h1c M 1 ... h2 M cM 0
(k = M)
h1c M h0 c M 1 ... h2 M 1cM 0

This leads to
a set of 2M+1
equations:
:
hM c M hM 1c M 1 ... h M cM 1
(k = 0)
:
h2 M 1c M h2 M 2 c M 1 ... h1cM 0
h2 M c M h2 M 1c M 1 ... h0cM 0
(k = M)
Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE)

The aim is to minimize:
J E ek
ek zk bk (or bk zk depending on the source)

Input to
decision
circuit
Estimate
of k:th
symbol
Error
ek
s k
Channel
r k
Equalizer
zk
z k
bk
b k
MSE vs. equalizer coefficients

J E ek
2
quadratic multi-dimensional function of

equalizer coefficient values
J
c2
c1
Illustration of case for two real-valued

equalizer coefficients (or one complexvalued coefficient)
MMSE aim: find minimum value directly (Wiener solution),

or use an algorithm that recursively changes the equalizer
coefficients in the correct direction (towards the minimum
value of J)!
Wiener solution
We start with the Wiener-Hopf equations in matrix form:
Rc opt p
R = correlation matrix (M x M) of received (sampled) signal
values
rk
p = vector (of length M) indicating cross-correlation between

received signal values
rk
and estimate of received symbol
bk
copt = vector (of length M) consisting of the optimal equalizer

coefficient values
(We assume here that the equalizer contains M taps, not

2M+1 taps like in other parts of this presentation)
Correlation matrix R & vector p

R E r k r*T k
where
r k rk , rk 1,..., rk M 1
*
p E r k bk
M samples
Before we can perform the stochastical expectation operation,

we must know the stochastical properties of the transmitted
signal (and of the channel if it is changing). Usually we do not
have this information => some non-stochastical algorithm like
Least-mean-square (LMS) must be used.
Algorithms
Stochastical information (R and p) is available:
1. Direct solution of the Wiener-Hopf equations:
Rc opt p
copt R p
Inverting a large
matrix is difficult!
2. Newtons algorithm (fast iterative algorithm)

3. Method of steepest descent (this iterative algorithm is slow
but easier to implement)
R and p are not available:

Use an algorithm that is based on the received signal sequence
directly. One such algorithm is Least-Mean-Square (LMS).
Conventional linear equalizer of LMS type

Received complex
signal samples
rk M
c M
c1 M
Widrow
Transversal FIR filter

with 2M+1 filter taps
cM 1
Complex-valued tap coefficients

of equalizer filter
LMS algorithm for

adjustment of
tap coefficients
rk M
ek
cM
zk
bk
Estimate of k:th symbol

after symbol decision
Joint optimization of coefficients and phase

r k
zk
Equalizer filter
e
Coefficient
updating
bk
Phase
synchronization
ek
Godard
Proakis, Ed.3, Section 11-5-2
Minimize:
J E ek
ek zk bk cm rk m exp j bk
m M
Least-mean-square (LMS) algorithm

(derived from method of steepest descent)
for convergence towards minimum mean square error (MMSE)
Real part of n:th coefficient:
Re cn i 1 Re cn i
Imaginary part of n:th coefficient:
ek ek ek
2
2 2M 1 1
equations
ek
Re cn
Im cn i 1 Im cn i
ek
Phase: i 1 i
Iteration index
ek
Im cn
Step size of iteration
LMS algorithm (cont.)

After some calculation, the recursion equations are obtained in
the form
j M

Re cn i 1 Re cn i 2 Re e cm rk m bk rk n e j
m M
j M

Im cn i 1 Im cn i 2 Im e cm rk m bk rk n e j
m M
j M
i 1 i 2 Im bk e cm rk m
m M
ek
Effect of iteration step size
smaller
larger
Slow acquisition
Poor stability
Poor tracking
performance
Large variation
around optimum
value
Decision feedback equalizer

bk 1
q1
qQ 1
c M
c1 M
bk
qQ
FBF
rk M
bk Q
?
zk
cM 1
FFF
rk M
cM
ek
LMS
algorithm
for tap
coefficient
adjustment
Decision feedback equalizer (cont.)

The purpose is again to minimize J E ek
where
ek zk bk
m M
ek
m k m
qn bk n bk
n 1
Feedforward filter (FFF) is similar to filter in linear equalizer

tap spacing smaller than symbol interval is allowed
=>
fractionally spaced equalizer
=> oversampling by a factor of 2 or 4 is common
Feedback filter (FBF) is used for either reducing or canceling
(difference: see next slide) samples of previous symbols at
decision time instants
tap spacing must be equal to symbol interval
Decision feedback equalizer (cont.)

The coefficients of the feedback filter (FBF) can be
obtained in either of two ways:
Recursively (using the LMS algorithm) in a similar
fashion as FFF coefficients
Proakis, Ed.3, Section 11-2
By calculation from FFF coefficients and channel
coefficients (we achieve exact ISI cancellation in
this way, but channel estimation is necessary):
qn
m M
cm hn m
n 1, 2,
,Q
Channel estimation circuit

Proakis, Ed.3, Section 11-3
Estimated
symbols
bk
LMS
algorithm
Filter length = CIR length

T
c0
rk
rk
+
k:th sample of received signal
c1 cM 1
cM
bk M
hm cm
Estimated channel coefficients
Channel estimation circuit (cont.)

1. Acquisition phase
Uses training sequence
Symbols are known at receiver, bk bk .
2. Tracking phase
Uses estimated symbols (decision directed mode)
Symbol estimates are obtained from the decision
circuit (note the delay in the feedback loop!)
Since the estimation circuit is adaptive, time-varying
channel coefficients can be tracked to some extent.
Alternatively: blind estimation (no training sequence)
Channel estimation circuit in receiver

Mandatory for MLSE-VA, optional for DFE
b k
Training
symbols
(no
errors)
Symbol estimates (with errors)

Estimated channel coefficients
Channel
estimation
circuit
h m
Equalizer
& decision
circuit
b k
r k
Received signal samples
Clean output symbols
Theoretical ISI cancellation receiver

(extension of DFE, for simulation of matched filter bound)
bk P
bk 1
Precursor cancellation
of future symbols
rk P
Filter matched to
sampled channel
impulse response
bk 1
bk Q
Postcursor cancellation
of previous symbols
bk
+
If previous and future symbols can be estimated without error

(impossible in a practical system), matched filter performance
can be achieved.
MLSE-VA receiver structure

r t
Matched
filter
NW
filter
y k
MLSE
(VA)
b k
f k
f k
Channel
estimation circuit
MLSE-VA circuit causes delay of estimated symbol sequence

before it is available for channel estimation
=> channel estimates may be out-of-date
(in a fast time-varying channel)
MLSE-VA receiver structure (cont.)

The probability of receiving sample sequence y (note: vector form)
of length N, conditioned on a certain symbol sequence estimate and
overall channel estimate:
Since we have AWGN
p y b, f p yk b, f
exp 2
N 2
N
k 1
2
2
Objective:
find symbol
sequence that
maximizes this
probability
This is allowed since

noise samples are
uncorrelated due to NW
(= noise whitening) filter
Length of f (k)
K 1
y
k 1
n 0
f b
n k n
Metric to be
minimized
(select best b
..
using VA)

We want to choose that symbol sequence estimate and overall
channel estimate which maximizes the conditional probability.
Since product of exponentials <=> sum of exponents, the
metric to be minimized is a sum expression.
If the length of the overall channel impulse response in
samples (or channel coefficients) is K, in other words the time
span of the channel is (K-1)T, the next step is to construct a
state trellis where a state is defined as a certain combination
of K-1 previous symbols causing ISI on the k:th symbol.
f k
0
Note: this is overall CIR,

including response of matched
filter and NW filter
K-1

At adjacent time instants, the symbol sequences causing ISI
are correlated. As an example (m=2, K=5):
At time k-3
1 0 0 1 0
At time k-2
1 0 0 1 0 0
At time k-1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
At time k
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
Bit detected at time instant

Bits
causing ISI
:
16 states
not causing ISI at time instant

State trellis diagram
Number
of states
The best state

sequence is
estimated by
means of Viterbi
algorithm (VA)
mK 1
Alphabet
size
k-3
k-2
k-1
k+1
Of the transitions terminating in a certain state at a certain

time instant, the VA selects the transition associated with
highest accumulated probability (up to that time instant) for
further processing.

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Equalization in a

wideband TDMA system

Three basic equalization methods (1)

Three basic equalization methods (2)

Three basic equalization methods (3)

Linear equalization, zero-forcing algorithm

Channel impulse response

FIR filter contains

Equalizer impulse response

(in fact the equivalent FIR filter consists of 2M+1+2N coefficients,

h1c M h0 c M 1 ... h2 M 1cM 0

Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE)

ek zk bk (or bk zk depending on the source)

MSE vs. equalizer coefficients

quadratic multi-dimensional function of

Illustration of case for two real-valued

MMSE aim: find minimum value directly (Wiener solution),

p = vector (of length M) indicating cross-correlation between

and estimate of received symbol

copt = vector (of length M) consisting of the optimal equalizer

(We assume here that the equalizer contains M taps, not

Correlation matrix R & vector p

Before we can perform the stochastical expectation operation,

2. Newtons algorithm (fast iterative algorithm)

R and p are not available:

Conventional linear equalizer of LMS type

Transversal FIR filter

Complex-valued tap coefficients

LMS algorithm for

Estimate of k:th symbol

Joint optimization of coefficients and phase

Least-mean-square (LMS) algorithm

Real part of n:th coefficient:

Imaginary part of n:th coefficient:

Step size of iteration

LMS algorithm (cont.)

Effect of iteration step size

Decision feedback equalizer

Decision feedback equalizer (cont.)

Feedforward filter (FFF) is similar to filter in linear equalizer

Decision feedback equalizer (cont.)

Proakis, Ed.3, Section 10-3-1

Channel estimation circuit

Filter length = CIR length

k:th sample of received signal

Estimated channel coefficients

Channel estimation circuit (cont.)

Channel estimation circuit in receiver

Symbol estimates (with errors)

Clean output symbols

Theoretical ISI cancellation receiver

If previous and future symbols can be estimated without error

MLSE-VA receiver structure

MLSE-VA circuit causes delay of estimated symbol sequence

MLSE-VA receiver structure (cont.)

This is allowed since

MLSE-VA receiver structure (cont.)

Note: this is overall CIR,