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    Ther 1 - 111114

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    This document provides an overview of thermodynamic principles related to pressure. It defines pressure as caused by molecular collisions and discusses the kinetic theory description. Absolute, gauge, and atmospheric pressures are defined. Methods of measuring pressure including manometers and barometers are described. Sample problems demonstrate conversions between pressure units and calculations involving pressure measurements and relationships. The document concludes with an assignment asking students to convert various pressure readings between units.

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    Ther 1 - 111114

    Uploaded by

    So Nny
    3K views33 pages
    This document provides an overview of thermodynamic principles related to pressure. It defines pressure as caused by molecular collisions and discusses the kinetic theory description. Absolute, gauge, and atmospheric pressures are defined. Methods of measuring pressure including manometers and barometers are described. Sample problems demonstrate conversions between pressure units and calculations involving pressure measurements and relationships. The document concludes with an assignment asking students to convert various pressure readings between units.

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    This document provides an overview of thermodynamic principles related to pressure. It defines pressure as caused by molecular collisions and discusses the kinetic theory description. Absolute, gauge, and atmospheric pressures are defined. Methods of measuring pressure including manometers and barometers are described. Sample problems demonstrate conversions between pressure units and calculations involving pressure measurements and relationships. The document concludes with an assignment asking students to convert various pressure readings between units.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
    3K views33 pages

    Ther 1 - 111114

    Uploaded by

    So Nny
    This document provides an overview of thermodynamic principles related to pressure. It defines pressure as caused by molecular collisions and discusses the kinetic theory description. Absolute, gauge, and atmospheric pressures are defined. Methods of measuring pressure including manometers and barometers are described. Sample problems demonstrate conversions between pressure units and calculations involving pressure measurements and relationships. The document concludes with an assignment asking students to convert various pressure readings between units.

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    THERMODYNAMIC

    S1
    BASIC PRINCIPLES,
    CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
    Engr Armando C. Emata
    November 13, 2014

    TOPIC OBJECTIVES
    Pressure Kinetic Theory
    What are manometers?
    How do we measure pressure?
    What is a gage pressure?
    What is atmospheric pressure?
    What is absolute pressure?
    Solve sample problems on pressure.
    Assignment for next meeting

    PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY


    The pressure of a gas, if gravitation and other

    body forces are negligible (as they generally are


    for a gas), is caused by the pounding of a large
    number of gas molecules on the surface.
    The elementary kinetic theory presumes the
    following:
    1. the volume of the molecule itself is negligible
    2. the molecules are so far apart they exert

    negligible forces on one another, and


    3. the molecules are rigid spheres that do have
    elastic collisions with walls and with each other.

    PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY


    Consider Fig. 1/2 to elaborate this.
    A
    R

    P
    Ay

    By
    B

    Fig 1/2 Consider this to be a cubical container, L on a side. This assumption


    simplifies the physical concepts, but the result is just as general.

    PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY


    Elastic collision means, as shown in Fig. 1/2,

    that when molecule A strikes the plane


    surface of MN at an angle of incidence with
    the normal PN, it rebounds symmetrically on
    the other side of PN with an angle , and A
    with
    noAloss of kinetic energy or momentum; [ ]
    = [ ].
    The pressure is a consequence of the rate of
    change of momentum of the molecules
    striking the surface.

    PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY


    Simply put, pressure is defined as the normal

    force per unit area.


    We speak of the pressure at a point, but
    actual pressure-measuring equipment (Fig. 1/3
    shows one type) typically registers not dozens
    of molecular strikes, but ordinarily millions, in
    a small fraction of a second.
    Exceptions to this generalization include
    extreme vacuums and the outskirts of the
    earths atmosphere.

    PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY


    At an altitude of 30 miles, the mean free path

    (MFP) of a molecule is about 1 in., relatively


    quite far; at 400 miles, the MFP is about 40
    miles.
    This decreasing density means fewer strikes,
    and if the pressure probe is struck by a
    molecule only now and then, there is no
    25
    meaning
    to the pressure at a point.
    A cubic inch of atmosphere (a handful)
    contains some 4 x 10 molecules.

    PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY

    Fig. 1/3

    Manometer for a Bourdon Pressure


    Gage. This picture shows the
    movement in one type of pressure
    gage known as the single-tube gage.
    The fluid enters the tube through the
    threaded connection. As the pressure
    increases, the tube with an elliptical
    section tends to straighten, the end
    that is nearest the linkage moving
    toward the right. The linkage causes
    the sector to rotate. The sector
    engages a small pinion gear. The index
    hand moves with the pinion gear. The
    whole mechanism is, of course,
    enclosed in a case, and a graduated
    dial, from which the pressure is read, is

    PRESSURE KINETIC THEORY


    Barometers are used to measure atmospheric

    pressure. It is convenient to have a standard


    reference atmospheric pressure, which is 760
    mm HG or even 29.92 in Hg at 32F, or 14.696
    psia (14.7 typical), or 1 atm.
    Pressure is one of the most useful
    thermodynamic properties because it is easily
    measured directly.
    Pressure-measuring instruments read a
    difference of pressures, called gage pressure;
    in pounds per square inch, we shall use the
    abbreviation psig, the g standing for gage.

    PRESSURE MANOMETERS
    Manometers give a reading as the length of

    some liquid column: mercury, water, alcohol,


    etc. Fig. 1/4 below shows a manometer set-up.
    A

    Atmospheric

    Pressure at V
    Aacuum pressure at A

    Fig. 1/3

    PRESSURE MANOMETERS
    If a length of column of liquid, of cross-

    sectional area A, is d, then the volume is V =


    g
    Ad and the force
    of gravity on the column is F
    = Ad, where is the specific weight of the
    fluid.
    = (g/g)
    Eq. (1-6)
    The corresponding
    pressure is
    g
    p = F /A = d

    MEASURING PRESSURE
    Absolute pressure

    (p = p + gp )

    + pg
    Atmospheric pressure
    p

    (p g= 0, p = p)

    p g vacuum
    p

    Absolute pressure

    P
    Zero absolute or total vacuum

    (p = p p
    g )

    (p = 0, pg = p)

    GAGE PRESSURE

    Open to atmosphere

    hg

    p = p + p )

    pg

    V
    Ahg
    Fg
    p =
    g ------ + ------- + --------A
    A
    A

    ghg
    ghg
    p =
    g h g = -------- = -------kv
    k

    GAGE PRESSURE
    PROBLEM # 1:

    A 30-m vertical column of fluid (density =


    1878 kg/m) is located where g = 9.65 mps.
    Find the pressure at the base of the column.
    Solution:
    gghg[9.65 m/s] [1878 kg
    /m]
    m
    p g= --------- = ----------------------------------- (30
    kg m -m
    k
    m)
    1 ---------N-s
    g

    p = 543,680 N/m or 543.68 kPa (gage)

    ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
    As previously mentioned, a barometer is used

    to measure atmospheric pressure.


    Atmospheric pressure differs according to
    location as well as weather conditions.

    Where h = the height of column of


    h liquid supported by
    atmospheric pressure p

    Schematic drawing of simple


    mercury barometer with vertical
    mercury column and reservoir at base

    ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
    PROBLEM # 2:

    A vertical column of water will be supported to


    what height by standard atmospheric
    pressure?
    Solution:
    At standard
    condition,
    HO
    = 62.4 lb/ft p = 14.7 psi
    p [14.7 lb/in][144 in/ft]
    62.4 lb/ft
    h =HO
    ------ = --------------------------------= 33.9 ft

    ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
    The specific gravity (sp.gr) of a substance is the

    ratio of the specific weight of the substance to that


    of water.
    sp. gr. = -------

    HO

    PROBLEM # 4:

    The pressure of a boiler is 9.5 kg/cm. The


    barometric pressure of the atmosphere is 768 mm
    HG. Find the absolute pressure in the boiler. (ME
    Board problem Oct 1987).

    ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
    PROBLEM # 4:

    Solution:
    p g= 9.5 kg/cm
    h = 768 mm Hg
    At standard conditions,
    =HO1000 kg/m
    p =Hg( )(h) = Hg
    (sp.gr.)
    ( )(h)
    HO
    (13.6)[1000 kg/m)(0.768 m)= 1.04
    kg
    = ---------------------------------------cm
    10,000 cm/m
    -----

    ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
    PROBLEM # 4:

    Solution contd:
    p = p g+ p = 1.04 + 9.5
    p = 10.54 kg/cm

    ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
    The absolute pressure, say psia, can be

    determined from the gage pressure as follows:


    absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure
    gage pressureEq. (1-8)
    where: the positive sign applies when absolute
    pressure is greater than atmospheric, and the
    negative sign for absolute pressure less than
    atmospheric.
    The negative sign is for gage reading called
    vacuum pressure or vacuum.

    ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
    Each term in (1-8) should, of course, be in the

    same pressure unit.


    Equation (1-8), written to apply when the
    gage proper is located in the atmosphere,
    may be generalized by this statement:
    The gage pressure is the difference in
    pressures of the region to which it is attached
    (via the threaded connection) and the region
    in which the gage is located.

    ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
    In equation form,

    p = h
    where: h = hg h , the height of column of
    liquid supported by absolute pressure p.
    If the liquid used in the barometer is mercury,
    the atmospheric pressure becomes,
    p =
    h = (sp.gr.)
    ( )(h)
    Hg HO
    HOg
    (13.6)[62.4
    lb/ft)(h
    in)
    = --------------------------------1728 in/ft

    ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
    p = 0.491 h, lb/in
    where: h = column of mercury in inches
    then, p = g0.491 h g, lb/in
    and, p = 0.491 h, lb/in

    ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
    PROBLEM # 5:

    A pressure gage registers 40 psig in a region


    where the barometer reads 14.5 psia. Find the
    absolute pressure in psia and in kPa.
    Solution:
    14.5 + 40 = 54.5 psia
    1 kgm

    1 newton

    a = 1 m/s

    1 slug

    1 lbf

    a = 1 ft/s

    ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
    PROBLEM # 5:

    Solution contd:

    lbm
    [1 kg m ][2.205 -----kgm
    1 kgm = ----------------------------= 0.06853
    lbm
    slug
    32.174 ------slug
    1 m/s = [1 m/s][3.28 ft/m] = 3.28 ft/s
    0.06853 slug

    F, lbf
    A = 3.28 ft/s

    ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
    PROBLEM # 5:

    Solution contd:
    F =ma
    ------ = (0.06863 slug)[3.28 ft/s] = 0.2248 lb
    f
    k
    1 newton = 0.2248 lb
    1 lb = 4.4484 newtons
    f

    ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
    PROBLEM # 5:

    Solution contd:
    lb)[4.4484 N/lb][39.37 1n/m]
    1 ----- lb=(1---------------------------------------in
    in
    N
    1 ----- lb= 6895 ----m
    in
    N
    p = [54.5lb-----] 6895
    m ----375.78 kPa
    lb
    in
    in

    = 375,780Pa or

    ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
    PROBLEM # 6:

    Given the barometric pressure of 14.7 psia


    (29.92 in Hg abs), make these conversions:
    (a) 80 psig to psia and to atmosphere,
    (b) 20 in. Hg vacuum to in. Hg abs and to psia,
    (c) 10 psia to psi vacuum and to Pa,
    (d) 15 in. Hg gage to psia, to torrs, and to Pa.
    Note: 1 atmosphere = 760 torrs

    ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
    PROBLEM # 6:

    Solution:
    (a) p = pg + p = 14.7 + 80 = 94.7 psia
    80 psig
    p = ------------ = 5.44 atmospheres
    psia
    14.7 ------atm

    ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
    PROBLEM # 6:

    Solution contd:
    (b)

    h = 9.92 in. Hg abs

    h g= 20 in. p = 0.491 h
    h = 29.92 in.

    p = (0.491)(9.92)
    h

    = 4.87 psia

    ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
    PROBLEM # 6:

    Solution contd:
    (b)
    pg

    p =g 4.7 psi vacuum


    p =g (14.7 psi)[6895 Pa/psia]

    p = 14.7 psia
    p = 10 psia

    = 32,407 Pa (gage)

    ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
    PROBLEM # 6:

    Solution contd:
    h = 29.92 + 15 = 44.92 in. Hg abs
    (c)

    h g= p
    15=in0.491 h = (0.491)(44.92) = 22.06 p

    (15)(760)
    p = -------------= 381 torrs
    g
    29.92
    h = 29.92=in[0.491 psi/in][15 in][6895 Pa/psi]

    = 50,780 Pa (gage)

    ASSIGNMENT NOVEMBER 18,


    2014
    For next meeting, submit in one sheet of bond paper. Write your name,

    subject/section, date and write the problem statement. Please write legibly.
    Non-compliance will mean non-acceptance of your assignment.

    1. A vacuum gage mounted on a condenser reads

    0.66 m Hg. What is the absolute pressure in the


    condenser in kPa when the atmospheric pressure is
    101.3 kPa?
    2. Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa
    absolute, assuming that the barometer reads 760
    mm Hg: (a) 90 cm Hg abs; (b) 40 cm Hg vacuum;
    (c) 100 psig; (d) 8 in. Hg vacuum, and (e) 76 in. Hg
    gage.

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