A sequence is

(a) an ordered list of objects.

1 1 1 1
1, , , ,
...
2 4 8 16

(b) A function whose domain is a set of integers.

Domain: 1, 2, 3, 4, ,n
Range

a1, a2, a3, a4, an

{(1, 1), (2, ), (3, ), (4, 1/8) .}

Finding patterns

Describe a pattern for each sequence. Write

a formula for the nth term
1 1 1 1
1, , , ,
...
2 4 8 16

1
2

n1

1 1 1 1
1, , ,
,
...
2 6 24 120

1
n!

1 4 9 16 25
, , ,
,
...
4 9 16 25 36

n2
( n 1)

Write the first 5 terms for

1 2 3 4 n 1
0, , , , ...
...
2 3 4 5
n

On a number line

n 1
an
n

As a function

The terms in this sequence get closer and

closer to 1. The sequence CONVERGES to 1.

Write the first 5 terms

(1) n 1 n 1
an
n

1 2
3 4
n 1
0, , , , . ...
...
2 3
4 5
n

The terms in this sequence do not get close to

Any single value. The sequence Diverges

Write the terms for an = 3

The terms are 3, 3, 3, 3

The sequence converges to 3.

y= L is a horizontal asymptote when

sequence converges to L.

A sequence that diverges

(1) n 1 n 1
an
n

Sequences

Write the first 5 terms of the sequence.

Does the sequence converge? If so, find the value.
(1) n 1
an
2n 1

1 1 1 1
1, , , ,
3 5 7 9

(1) n 1
lim n
0
2n 1

The sequence converges to 0.

an (1)

n 1

1
1
n

1 2 3 4
0, , , ,
2 3 4 5

The sequence diverges.

1
lim n (1) 1
n

does not exist

Infinite Series

1
1 1 1
1
2n 2 4 8 16 ...
n 1

Represents the sum of the terms in a sequence.

We want to know if the series converges to
a single value i.e. there is a finite sum.

1 1 1 1 1 ...

n 1

The series diverges because sn = n. Note that the

Sequence {1} converges.

1
n(n 1)
n 1

1
1 1 1
1
1
n(n 1) 2 6 12 20 30 ...
n 1

Partial sums of
1
1

1 2 2
1
1
2
s2

1 2 2 3 3
1
1
1
3
s3

1 2 2 3 3 4 4
s1

1
1 1 1
1
1
n(n 1) 2 6 12 20 30 ...
n 1

and
sn

1
1
1
1
n

...

1 2 2 3 3 4
n( n
1) n 1

If the sequence of partial sums converges,

the series converges
1 2 3 4 5
n
, , , , ...
... Converges to 1 so series converges.
2 3 4 5 6 n 1

Finding sums

1
n(n 1)
n 1

Can use partial fractions to rewrite

1
n(n 1)
n 1

1
1
1 1
1 1
1
1
1
n n 1 (1 2 ) ( 2 3 ) ( 3 4 ) ... n n 1 ...
n 1

1
1
n(n 1) limn (1 n 1) 1
n 1

. he partial sums of the series

T

Limit

1
n(n 1)
n 1

Geometric Series

2n

n 1

1 1 1
1

...
2 4 8 16

Each term is obtained from the preceding

number by multiplying by the same number r.
Find r (the common ratio)
1 1
1
1

...
5 25 125 625
2 4 8 16

...
3 3 3
3

ar

n 1

n 1

Is a Geometric Series
Where a = first term and r=common ratio

Write using series notation

1
1 1 1
1
2

...
2 4 8 16
n 1
3 12
48 192

...
5 25 125 625
2 4 8 16

...
3 3 3
3

n 1

3 4
5 5
n 1

n 1

2 n 1
3 2
n 1

The sum of a geometric series

2

sn a ar ar ar ...ar
2

rsn ar ar ar ...ar
n

n 1

Multiply each term by r

sn rsn a ar
n
n
a ar
a (1 r )
sn

,r 1
1 r
1 r
if | r | 1,

Sum of n terms

subtract

r 0 as n .
a
Geometric series converges to sn 1 r , | r | 1
If r>1 the geometric series diverges.

Find the sum of a Geometric Series

Where a = first term and r=common ratio

ar

n 1

1
2
n 1

n 1

3 4
5 5
n 1

n 1

n 1

,
1 r

| r | 1

1
2 1
1
1
2

3
5 31
4 9 3
1
5

2 n 1
3 2
n 1

The series diverges.

Repeating decimals-Geometric Series

0.080808

8
10

10

and r

n 1
ar

n 1

8
10

8
10

8
8

10

...

1
102

8 1
2
2
n 1 10 10

n 1

2
a
8
n 1
10
ar

1 r 1 1
99
n 1
102

The repeating decimal is equivalent to 8/99.

Series known to converge or diverge

1. A geometric series with | r | <1 converges

2. A repeating decimal converges
3. Telescoping series converge
A necessary condition for convergence:
Limit as n goes to infinity for nth term
in sequence is 0.
nth term test for divergence:
If the limit as n goes to infinity for the nth
term is not 0, the series DIVERGES!

Convergence or Divergence?

n 10
10n 1
n 1

1.075

n 1

1
1
n n2
n 1

2n

n 1

A sequence in which each term is less than or

equal to the one before it is called a monotonic
non-increasing sequence. If each term is greater
than or equal to the one before it, it is called
monotonic non-decreasing.

A monotonic sequence that is bounded

Is convergent.
A series of non-negative terms converges
If its partial sums are bounded from above.

The Integral Test

Let {an} be a sequence of positive terms.

Suppose that an = f(n) where f is a continuous
positive, decreasing function of x for all xN.
Then the series and the corresponding integral
shown both converge of both diverge.
f(n)

an

n N

f(x)

f ( x)dx

The series and the integral both converge or both diverge

Area in rectangle corresponds to term in sequence

Exact area under curve is between

If area under curve is finite, so is area in rectangles
If area under curve is infinite, so is area in rectangles

Using the Integral test

n
n2 1
n 1

an f ( n)

n
2

n 1

f ( x)

x
x2 1

1 2x
2

x2 1 dx limb 2 x2 1 dx limb ln( x 1)

1
1
2

limb (ln(b 1) ln 2)
The improper integral diverges

Thus the series diverges

b
1

Using the Integral test

n2 1

n 1

an f ( n)
b

1
2

n 1

f ( x)

1
x2 1

x2 1 dx limb x2 1 dx limb arctan x

1

limb (arctan b arctan1)
2 4 4
The improper integral converges

Thus the series converges

b
1

Harmonic series and p-series

1
np
n 1

Is called a p-series

A p-series converges if p > 1 and diverges

If p < 1 or p = 1.

1
1 1 1 1
1

....
....
n
2 3 4 5
n
n 1

Is called the harmonic series and it

diverges since p =1.

Identify which series converge and which diverge.

1
n 1 3
n

1
n

n 1

n 1

n3

1
n
n 1

100
n2
n 1

3 4
5 5
n 1

n 1

Let

an

Direct Comparison test

an be a series with no negative terms

n 1

Converges if there is a series

n 1

cn

n 1

Where the terms of an are less than or equal to

the terms of cn for all n>N.

an Diverges if there is a series

n 1

dn

n 1

Where the terms of an are greater than or equal

to the terms of dn for all n>N.

Limit
Comparison
test
Limit Comparison test

an
lim x
c,
bn

0c

Then the following series

an and n1bn

n 1

both converge or both diverge:

an
lim x
0
bn

bn Converges then an Converges

and Amd
n 1
n 1

an
lim x

bn Diverges then

and
bn
n 1

an Diverges

n 1

Convergence or divergence?

2 3n

n 1

n 1

1
3n 2
n

n2 1

n 1

Alternating Series

A series in which terms alternate in sign

(1) an
n

or

n 1

(1)

n 1

n 1

n 1
(

1)
an

n 1

1
2n

1 1 1
1

...
2 4 8 16

1
1 1 1
(1) n 1 2 3 4 ...
n 1
n

Alternating Series Test

n 1
(

1)
an a1 a2 a3 a4 ...

n 1

Converges if:
an is always positive
an an+1 for all n N for some integer N.
an0
If any one of the conditions is not met, the
Series diverges.

Absolute and Conditional Convergence

A series

isan absolutely convergent if the

n N

corresponding series of absolute values

converges.

n N

an

A series that converges but does not converge absolutely,

converges conditionally.
Every absolutely convergent series converges. (Converse is
false!!!)

Is the given series convergent or divergent? If it

is convergent, its it absolutely convergent or
conditionally convergent?

( 1)

n 1

n 1

n ( n 1) / 2
n

( 1)

n 1

( n 1)
n

( 1)
ln(n 1)
n 1

( 1)
n
n 1

a) Is the given series convergent or divergent? If

it is convergent, its it absolutely convergent or
conditionally convergent?
n ( n 1) / 2

( 1)
1 1
1
1

...

n
3 9 27 81
3
n 1

This is not an alternating series, but since

n 1

( 1) n ( n 1) / 2
n

3n

n 1

Is a convergent geometric series, then the given

Series is absolutely convergent.

b) Is the given series convergent or divergent? If

it is convergent, its it absolutely convergent or
conditionally convergent?
n

( 1)
1
1
1
ln(n 1) ln 2 ln 3 ln 4 ......
n 1

Converges by the Alternating series test.

n 1

( 1)
1
1
1

......
ln( n 1)
ln 2 ln 3 ln 4

Diverges with direct comparison with the harmonic

Series. The given series is conditionally convergent.

c) Is the given series convergent or divergent? If

it is convergent, its it absolutely convergent or
conditionally convergent?

n 1

( 1)

n 1

( n 1)
2 3 4 5

n
1 2 3 4

By the nth term test for divergence, the series

Diverges.

d) Is the given series convergent or divergent? If

it is convergent, its it absolutely convergent or
conditionally convergent?

( 1)
n
n 1

1
1
1
1

1
2
3
4

Converges by the alternating series test.

n 1

( 1)
n

1
1
1
1

1
2
3
4

Diverges since it is a p-series with p <1. The

Given series is conditionally convergent.

The Ratio Test

Let an be a series with positive terms and

n N

an 1
lim n

an

Then
The series converges if < 1
The series diverges if > 1
The test is inconclusive if = 1.

The Root Test

Let an be a series with non-zero terms and

n N

lim n n | an | L

Then
The series converges if L< 1
The series diverges if L > 1 or is infinite
The test is inconclusive if L= 1.

Convergence or divergence?

2
n!
n 1

n 2 2n 1

n 1

n 1

2n

nn

Procedure for determining Convergence

Power Series (infinite polynomial in x)

n
2
n
c
x

c
x

c
x

.....
c
x
...
n
0
1
2
n

n0

Is a power series centered at x = 0.

and

n
2
n
c
(
x

a
)

c
(
x

a
)

c
(
x

a
)

.....
c
(
x

a
)
...
n
0
1
2
n

n0

Is a power series centered at x = a.

Examples of Power Series

n0

xn
x2
x3
1 x

...
n!
2
3!

Is a power series centered at x = 0.

and

n0

( 1) n
3n

( x 1) n 1

1
1
1
( x 1) ( x 1) 2 ..... n ( x 1) n ...
3
9
3

Is a power series centered at x = -1.

Geometric Power Series

1 x x x x ...x

n 0

a 1 and r x
a
1
S

,
1 r 1 x
P1 1 x
P2 1 x x 2
P3 1 x x 2 x 3

x 1

Convergence of a Power Series

There are three possibilities

1)There is a positive number R such that the
series diverges for |x-a|>R but converges for
|x-a|<R. The series may or may not converge
at the endpoints, x = a - R and x = a + R.
2)The series converges for every x. (R = .)
3)The series converges at x = a and diverges
elsewhere. (R = 0)

What is the interval of convergence?

1 x x x x ...x

n 0

Since r = x, the series converges |x| <1, or

-1 < x < 1. In interval notation (-1,1).
Test endpoints of 1 and 1.

(1)

n 0

(1)

n 0

Series diverges
Series diverges

Geometric Power Series

Find the function

( 1) n
1
1
1
n
2
n
(
x

1)

(
x

1)

(
x

1)

.....
(
x

1)
...
3n
n
3
9
3
n0

1
a 1 and r ( x 1)
3
a
1
3
3
S

1 r 1 1 ( x 1) 3 ( x 1)
4 x
3

Find the radius of convergence

1
r ( x 1)
3
1
( x 1) 1
3

2 x 4

Geometric Power Series

Find
ofof
convergence
Find the
the radius
interval
convergence n
0

( 1) n
3n

( x 1) n

For x = -2,

( 1) n

n0

( 2 1)

( 1) n ( 1) n

n 0

3n

n 0

Geometric series with r < 1, converges

For x = 4

n 0

( 1) n
n

( 4 1) n

n 0

( 1) n ( 3) n
n

3n

3n

n0

n 0

By nth term test, the series diverges.

Interval of convergence 2 x 4

Finding interval of convergence

Use the ratio

test: u x n
n

lim n

n 0

and

un 1

x
n

x n 1

n 1

un 1
x n 1 n
lim n
g n x
un
n 1 x

x 1

For x = 1

1
n
n0

Harmonic series
diverges

R=1
(-1, 1)
For x = -1

Interval of convergence

( 1) n
n
n 0
Alternating Harmonic series
converges

[-1, 1)

Differentiation and Integration of Power Series

If the function is given by the series

n
2
n
c
(
x

a
)

c
(
x

a
)

c
(
x

a
)

.....
c
(
x

a
)
...
n
0
1
2
n

n0

Has a radius of convergence R>0, the on the

interval (c-R, c+R) the function is continuous,
Differentiable and integrable where:
f ( x)

n 1
nc
(
x

a
)
n

n0

( x a) n
f ( x ) dx C cn
n 1
n 0

The radius of convergence is the same but the

interval of convergence may differ at the endpoints.

Constructing Power Series

If a power series exists has a radius of convergence = R
It can be differentiated
f ( x ) c0 c1 ( x a ) c2 ( x a ) 2 .....cn ( x a ) n ...

f ( x ) c1 2c2 ( x a ) 3c3 ( x a ) 2 .....ncn ( x a ) n 1...

f ( x ) 2c2 2 * 3c3 ( x a ) 3 * 4( x a ) 2 ....
f ( x ) 1* 2 * 3c3 2 * 3 * 4c4 ( x a ) 3 * 4 * 5( x a) 2 ...

So the nth derivative is

f

(n)

( x ) n !cn terms with factor of

(x a)

Finding the coefficients for a Power Series

f

(n)

( x ) n!cn terms with factor of

( x a)

All derivatives for f(x) must equal the series

Derivatives at x = a.
f ( a ) c1
f ( a ) 1* 2c2
f ( a ) 1* 2 * 3c3
f

( n)

( a ) n!cn
f

(n)

(a)
cn
n!

If f has a series representation centered at x=a, the

series must be

k 0

(k )

(a)
f ( a )
f ( a )
f (a ) f ( x a )
( x a) 2
( x a )3...
k!
2!
3!

(n)

(a ) n
x ...
n!

If f has a series representation centered at x=0, the

series must be

k 0

(k )

(0)
f (0)
f (0)
2

f ( a ) f (0)
( x a)
( x a )3...
k!
2!
3!

( n)

(0) n
x ...
n!

The graph of f(x) = ex and its Taylor

polynomials

Find the derivative and the integral

n 0

n 0

x
x
x
x
1 x

...
n!
2
3!
4!

2 n 1

x
(2n 1)!

x3
x5
x7
x

...
3!
5!
7!

Taylor polynomials for f(x) = cos (x)