Chapter 4: The Behaviour

of Interest Rates
Prepared by:
Mohammad Radzie Osman
Muhammad Syazmi Adli Zainal Abidin
Nickhlos Ak Jalang
Cynthia Bunya

Concepts of interest rate

and rate of return

Interest Rate

Interest is a return on capital. It also refers to the price of money.

For the borrower, interest is a payment for obtaining credit (loan) or the cost of borrowing.

For the lender, it is the amount of funds, valued in terms of money that they receive when they
extend credit. It is a reward for delaying their current consumption.

Rate of Return (ROR)

Rates of returns are basically returns on investments or rewards of taking risks.

For any security, the ROR is defined as the payments to the owner plus the change in its value,
expressed as a fraction of its purchase price.

the return on a bond will not necessarily equal the interest rate (YTM) on that bond.

Rates of returns also can be defined as rewards for giving up current use of funds.

Returns vary according to the investment vehicles being undertaken. For example, the rates of
returns on stocks, bonds, savings, etc.

Concept of nominal and real

interest rates

Nominal Interest Rates

Nominal interest rate is the rate of interest that is accrued at some time in the future.

It is the rate of exchange between RM now and RM in the future.

For example, if the nominal interest rate is 10% per annum, then a sum of RM10 borrowed this
year, is payable for a sum of RM11 next year.

Nominal interest rate makes no allowance for inflation, that is, it ignores the effects of inflation.

Real Interest Rate

Real

interest rate is the rate of interest at some time in future after discounting the rate of

inflation. The interest rate is adjusted for expected changes in the price level so that it more
accurately reflects the true cost of borrowing.
The

real interest rate is more accurately defined by the Fisher equation, named for Irving

Fisher. The equation states that the nominal interest rate (i) equals the real interest rate is
plus the expected rate of inflation. For example, if the nominal interest rate is 10% per
annum and the inflation rate is 3%, the real interest rate is really 7%.
Rewriting

the equation, we get:

i.Real = Nominal Expected Inflation.

ii.Nominal = Real + Expected Inflation.

Determination of the market interest rate

Determinants of Asset Demand.

Wealth: the total resources owned by the individual, including all assets

Expected Return: the return expected over the next period on one asset relative to
alternative assets

Risk: the degree of uncertainty associated with the return on one asset relative to
alternative assets

Liquidity: the ease and speed with which an asset can be turned into cash relative to
alternative assets

Theory of Asset Demand

Holding all other factors constant:
1.

The quantity demanded of an asset is positively related to wealth

2.

The quantity demanded of an asset is positively related to its expected return relative to
alternative assets

3.

The quantity demanded of an asset is negatively related to the risk of its returns relative to
alternative assets

4.

The quantity demanded of an asset is positively related to its liquidity relative to

alternative assets

CLASSICAL THEORY
Loanable Fund Theory- Fisherian Real Interest Rate

In this theory ,Real interest rate is determined by the equilibrium of demand for
loanable funds(Investment) and supply of loanable funds(savings).

The theory emphasis on the flow of credit (loanable funds) rather than money stock.

Loanable funds = Savings = Surplus fund ready to lent out.

Supplier of loanable funds are(Slf)

Demand for loanable funds are(Dlf)

House hold = Saving

House hold= Consumption

Firm = Undistributed profits

Firm= Investment

Federal + state government =

budget surplus

Federal + state government = budget

Deficit

Increase in money stock

Decreased in money stock

Decrease in demand for money

Increase in demand for money.

Conclusion :

Aggregate saving Schedule = Supply schedule for loanable fund

Real interest rate = Price of loanable Funds
Aggregate Investment Schedule = Demand schedule for loanable funds
Real In rate= Price of loanable Funds(Credit)

In diagram 3, IR is determined by the interaction of the agg investment and

Aggregate S A.

If IR r1 increase above the equilibrium level 5,There will be an excess supply of

loanable and saving exceed desired investment.SA will offer lower interest rate to
include deficit units to borrow their excess loanable fund.

The supply of loanable funds comes from people who have extra income they
want to save and lend out.

The demand for loanable funds comes from households and firms that wish to
borrow to make investments.

The Interest Rate Effect

A rising price level pushes up interest rates, which in turn lower the consumption of
certain goods and services and also lower investment in new plant and equipment:

A rising price level pushes up interest rates and lowers both consumption and
investment

A declining price level pushes down interest rates and encourages both
consumption and investment

Table 1 Response of the Quantity of an Asset Demanded to Changes

in Wealth, Expected Returns, Risk, and Liquidity

Supply and Demand in the Bond Market

At lower prices (higher interest rates), ceteris paribus, the quantity demanded of bonds is higher:
an inverse relationship

At lower prices (higher interest rates), ceteris paribus, the quantity supplied of bonds is lower: a
positive relationship

Market Equilibrium

Occurs when the amount that people are willing to buy (demand) equals the amount
that people are willing to sell (supply) at a given price

Bd = Bs defines the equilibrium (or market clearing) price and interest rate.

When Bd > Bs , there is excess demand, price will rise and interest rate will fall

When Bd < Bs , there is excess supply, price will fall and interest rate will rise

Figure 1 Supply and Demand for Bonds

Changes in Equilibrium Interest Rates

Shifts in the demand for bonds:

Wealth: in an expansion with growing wealth, the demand curve for bonds shifts to the right

Expected Returns: higher expected interest rates in the future lower the expected return for
long-term bonds, shifting the demand curve to the left

Expected Inflation: an increase in the expected rate of inflations lowers the expected return
for bonds, causing the demand curve to shift to the left

Risk: an increase in the riskiness of bonds causes the demand curve to shift to the left

Liquidity: increased liquidity of bonds results in the demand curve shifting right

Figure 2 Shift in the Demand Curve for Bonds

Table 2: Factors That Shift the Demand

Curve for Bonds

Table 3: Factors That Shift the Supply of Bonds

Figure 3 Shift in the Supply Curve for Bonds

Figure 4 Response to a Change in Expected Inflation

Figure 5 Response to a Business Cycle Expansion

KEYNESIAN MODEL

Introduced by John Maynard Keynes

Refers to the demand for money, considered as liquidity

Keynes defines the rate of interest as the reward for parting with liquidity for a
specified period of time.

According to him, the rate of interest is determined by the demand for and supply
ofMONEY

Has abandoned the classical view

Money velocity was constant and emphasized the important of interest rate.

Transactions Motive

The transactions motive relates to the demand for money or the need ofCASHfor the
current transactions of individual andBUSINESSexchanges.

Individuals hold cash in order to bridge the gap between the receipt of income and its
expenditure. (income motive)

The businessmen also need to hold ready cash in order to meet their current needs like
payments for raw materials, transport, wages etc. (business motive)

Precautionary motive:

Precautionary motive for holding money refers to the desire to hold cash balances for unforeseen
contingencies. Individuals hold some cash to provide for illness, accidents, unemployment and
other unforeseen contingencies. Similarly, businessmen keep cash in reserve to tide over
unfavorable conditions or to gain from unexpected deals.

Keynes holds that the transaction and precautionary motives are relatively interest inelastic, but
are highly income elastic. The amount of money held under these two motives (M 1) is a function
(L1) of the level of income (Y) and is expressed as M1= L1(Y)

FIGURE 6
Interest rate
L1

Money
Demand

Speculative Motive

Refers to people holding money as a store of wealth

Divide the assets that can be used to store wealth into 2 categories:

money

bonds

Interest rate has important role n influencing how much money to hold as a store of wealth

According to Keynes, the higher the rate of interest, the lower the speculative demand
forMONEY, and lower the rate of interest, the higher the speculative demand for

Determination of the Rate of Interest

FIGURE 7

Supply and Demand in the Market for Money:

The Liquidity Preference Framework
Keynesian model that determines the equilibrium interest rate
in terms of the supply of and demand for money.
There are two main categories of assets that people use to store
their wealth: money and bonds.
Total wealth in the economy = Bs M s = Bd + M d
Rearranging: Bs - Bd = M s - M d
If the market for money is in equilibrium (M s = M d ),
then the bond market is also in equilibrium (Bs = Bd ).

Figure 8 Equilibrium in the Market for Money

Demand for Money in the Liquidity Preference Framework

As the interest rate increases:

The opportunity cost of holding money increases
The relative expected return of money decreases

therefore the quantity demanded of money decreases.

Changes in Equilibrium Interest Rates in the

Liquidity Preference Framework
Shifts in the demand for money:

Income Effect: a higher level of income causes the demand for money at each interest rate to
increase and the demand curve to shift to the right

Price-Level Effect: a rise in the price level causes the demand for money at each interest rate to
increase and the demand curve to shift to the right

Shifts in the demand for money:

Income Effect: a higher level of income causes the demand for money at each interest rate to
increase and the demand curve to shift to the right

Price-Level Effect: a rise in the price level causes the demand for money at each interest rate to
increase and the demand curve to shift to the right

Table 4 Factors That Shift the Demand for and Supply of Money

Figure 9 Response to a Change in Income or the Price Level

Figure 10 Response to a Change in the Money Supply

THANK YOU FOR LISTENING

Q&A