ENGG METROLOGY &

INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT- I
METROLOGY
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Metrology.

Metrology defines

as

the

Science

of

pure

measurement.

But

in

engineering

purposes,

it

in

restricted

to

measurements

of

length

and

angles

and

other

qualities

which

are

expressed

in

linear

or

angular

terms.

Units and Standards

Units of Measurement:
C.G.S. System of Units
Centimeter Gram Second system of unit
M.K.S. System of Units:
Meter kilogram second system of units
International System (SI) of Units:
the meter (m), kilogram (k), second (s), and
ampere (A) of the MKSA system and, in
addition, the Kelvin (K) and the candela (cd)
as the units of temperature and luminous

Terminology in instrumentation

Precision

Degree
of
repetitiveness. If an instrument is not
precise it will give different results for
the same dimension for the repeated
readings.
Accuracy The maximum amount
by which the result differ from true
value(ie) Closeness to true value

 Calibration
is the process of establishing the
relationship between a measuring
device and the units of measure. This
is done by comparing a devise or the
output of an instrument to a
standard
having
known
measurement characteristics.
Sensitivity
It is ratio between output signal to

 Readability is a measure of an
instrument's ability to display
incremental changes in its output
value.
True size Theoretical size of a
dimension which is free from errors.
Actual size size obtained through
measurement with permissible error

 Repeatability
is
the
variation
in
measurements taken by a single person or
instrument on the same item and under the
same conditions. A measurement may be said
to be repeatable when this variation is smaller
than some agreed limit.
Reproducibility is one of the main principles
of the scientific method, and refers to the
ability of a test or experiment to be accurately
reproduced, or replicated, by someone else
working independently.

 Methods of measurement.
1. Direct Method

2. Indirect Method

3. Comparison Method

4. Coincidence Method.
Classification of measuring
instruments.
1. Angle measuring instruments

2. Length measuring instruments

3. Instruments for surface finish

4. Instruments for deviations.

Sources of error

Controllable Errors Calibration Errors ,ambient Conditions , Stylus

pressure, avoidable errors
Random Errors
These occur randomly and the specific causes
of such errors cannot be determined, but likely
sources of this type of error are small variations
in the position of setting standards and
workpiece, slight displacement of lever joints in
the measuring joints in the measuring
instrument,

Parallax Error :
On most dials the indicating finger
or pointer lies in a plane parallel to
the scale but displaced a small
distance
away
to
allow
free
movement of the pointer. It is then
essential to observe the pointer
along a line normal to the scale
otherwise a reading error will occur.

Line and End standard

measurements
Line standard
Length is expressed as the distance
between two lines.
End standard
Length is expressed as the distance
between two flat parallel faces

Linear measuring instruments

Straight edge.
Outside caliper.
Inside caliper.
Vernier caliper
Screw gauge
vernier height gauge
vernier depth gauge
Dial gauges

Comparators

Classification of comparators
Mechanical
Electrical and Electronics comparators
Optical comparators
Pneumatic comparators
Fluid displacement comparators
Projection comparators.
Multi check comparators
Automatic Gauging Machines
Electro-Mech. Comparators.

. Classification of measuring
Instruments.

According to the functions:

Length measuring instrument
Angle measuring instrument
Instrument for checking deviation
from geometrical forms
Instrument for determining the
quality of surface finish.

 According to the accuracy.

1. Most accurate instruments
Example - light interference instrument
2. Less accurate instrument
Example - Tool room Microscope,
Comparators, Optimizer
3. Still less accurate instrument
Example - Dial indicator, vernier caliper.

Angular measurements
Measuring the angle of Taper.

1. Vernier bevel Protractor

2. Tool room microscope

3. Sine bar and dial gauge

4. Auto Collimator

5. Taper measuring machine

6. Roller, Slip gauge, and micrometer.

Angle measurement
Sine bar
Sine Centre:
Sine Table
Taper Measurement
Using Precisions Balls and Rollers:-

 Slip Gauges

Direct precise measurement, where the accuracy of the work piece demands
it.
For checking accuracy of venire calipers, micro metes, and such other
measuring instruments.
Setting up a comparator to specific dimension.
For measuring angle of work piece and also for angular setting in conjunction
with a sine bar.
The distances of plugs, spigots, etc. on fixture are often best measured with
the slip gauges or end bars for large dimensions.
To check gap between parallel locations such as in gap gauges or between
two mating parts.
Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of high grade steel with exceptionally close
tolerances. These blocks are suitably hardened though out to ensure
maximum resistance to wear. They are then stabilized by heating and cooling
successively in stages so that hardening stresses are removed.

Surface finish measurement

Surface finish refers to the quality finish
or roughness over the surface.
Surface texture :

Repetitive or random deviations form the

normal surface which form the pattern of
the surface. Surface texture include
roughness, waveness, lay and flows.
. Primary texture : This refers to the
roughness of a surface, as opposed to its
waviness (secondary texture)

Methods of measuring surface finish

.
1) Surface Inspection (or) comparison method

2. Direct Instrument

a) Touch Inspection

b) Visual Inspection

c) Scratch Inspection

d) Microscopic Inspection

e) Surface photograph

f) Micro - Interferometer

g) Wallace surface Dynamometer

h) Reflected light Intensity

Roughness measurement
Maximum Peak to Valley. Height of
Roughness.
Root Mean Square Value (R.M.S.
Value)..
Centre Line Average Method (C.L.A.
Value)

Surface finish measuring

instruments
Profilometer.
The Tomlinson Surface Meter
Taylor-Hobson Talysurf.

UNIT IV
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTS

CLASSIFICATION OF
TEMPERATUREMEASURING EQUIPMENTS

Classification based on the Nature of Change Produced.

1. Glass thermometers
2. Pressure gauge thermometers
3. Differential expansion thermometers
4. Electrical resistance thermometers
5. Thermo couples
6. Optical pyrometers
7. Radiation pyrometers
8. Fusion pyrometers
9. Calorimetric pyrometers
Based on Electrical and non-electrical Principles

1. Primarily electrical or electronic in nature

2. Not primarily electrical or electronic in nature.

Bimetallic Thermometers:
Principle Involved : These use the
principles of metallic expansion when
temperature changes.
A bimetallic strip is shown in figure
which is straight initially. When
temperature changes, its shape also
changes into an arc.

BIMETALIC THERMOMETER
USE
The displacement of the free end can be converted into an electric
signal through use of secondary transducers like variable resistance,
inductance and capacitance transducers. Figure shows a strip of
bimetal in the form of a spiral. The curvature of the strip varies with
temperature. This causes the pointer to deflect. A scale is provided
which has been calibrated to show the temperature directly.

This kind of spiral is mostly used in devices measuring ambient

temperature and air-conditioning thermostats.

Advantages of Bimetallic Thermometers

1. Simple
2. Inexpensive
3. Accuracy of 0.5% to 2%

RESISTANCE
THERMOMETERS
Basic principle of resistance
thermometers?
When an electric conductor is
subjected to temperature change the
resistance of the conductor changes.
This change in resistance of the
conductor becomes a measure of the
change
in
temperature
when
calibrated.

Thermocouples
Principles Involved : When heat is
applied to the junction of two
dissimilar metals, an e.m.f. is
generated. (Figure)

Thermistors:
Thermistor is a temperature sensitive variable resistor
made of a ceramic like semiconducting material. They
are made of metal oxides and their mixtures like oxides
of cobalt, copper, nickel, etc. Unlike metals, thermistors
respond negatively to temperature. They behave as
resistors with a high negative temperature coefficient of
resistance. Typically, for each 1 C rise in temperature,
the resistance of a thermistor decreases by about 5%.
This high sensitivity to temperature changes makes the
thermistor
useful
in
precision
temperature
measurements. The resistance of thermistors vary from
0.5 to 0.75M . Variation of resistivity with
temperature is shown in figure.

UNIT III
FLOW MEASUREMENT

FLOW METERS
Flow meter measures the actual flow
rate.
TYPES OF FLOWMETERS
VENTURIMETER
PITOT TUBE
FLOW NOZZLE
ORIFICE PLATE

VENTURIMETER
USES
1. Low head loss about 10% of
differential pressure head.
2. High co-efficient of discharge.
3. Capable of measuring high flow rates
in pipes having very large diameter.
4. Characteristics are well established so
they are extensively used in process and
other industries.

VENTURI PRINCIPLE
This is just like an orifice meter. It has three distinct parts,
namely convergent cone, throat and divergent cone. A
manometer measures the pressure difference between two
sections as shown in figure.

Let a1 - Area at the inlet (1-1)

A2 - Area at the section (2-2)

x - Pressure head difference

Cd - Discharge coefficient

,Q=

Cd a1 a 2 2 g x
a 21 a2 2

Orifice METER
Let a1 Area at section I-I

a0 Area of orifice

Cd Discharge coefficient

Then, Flow rate

ROTO METERS
Rotameter:
A rotameter is a variable area type flow meter. It consists
of a vertical tapered tube with a float which is free to move
within the tube. The fluid goes from the bottom to the top.
When no fluid flows, the float rests at the bottom of the
tube. The float is made of such a diameter that it
completely blocks the inlet. When flow starts in the pipeline
and fluid reaches the float, the buoyant effect of fluid
makes the float lighter. The float passage remains closed
until the pressure of the flowing material plus the buoyance
effect exceeds the downward pressure due to the float
weight. Thus, depending on flow, the float assumes a
position. Thus the float gives the reading of flow rate.

Pitot Tube
Principle: Transformation of kinetic
energy of a liquid into potential
energy in the form of a static head.
Figure shows a pitot tube installed in
a pipeline where it acts like a probe.
The tube consists of two concentric
tubes, the inner tube with its open
ends faces the liquid.

Pitot tube principle

outer tube has a closed end and has four to eight
holes in its wall. The pressure in the outer tube is
the static pressure in the line. Total pressure is
sum of static pressure and the pressure due to the
impact of fluid.
If P - Pressure at inlet (Stagnation pressure)
Ps - Static pressure
- Density, then
Velocity v = from which flow rate is determined.

UNIT V
FORCE MEASUREMENT

FORCE MEASUREMENT
Force.
The mechanical quantity which
changes or tends to change the
motion or shape of a body to which it
is applied is called force.
.Force measureing equipments
load cells
Load cells are devices used for force
measurement through indirect
methods.

Force measuring
equipments
Scale and balance

a. Equal arm balance

b. Unequal arm balance

c. Pendulum scale
2. Elastic force meter Proving ring
3. Load cell
a. Strain gauge load cell

b. Hydraulic load cell

c. Pneumatic load cell

Torque measuring
equipments
Mechanical torsion meter
Optical torsion meter
Electrical torsion meter
Strain gauge torsion meter

Types of strain gauges.

Unbonded strain gauge

Bonded strain gauge
Fine wire strain gauge
Metal foil strain gauge
Piezo-resistive strain gauge

PROVING RING

Use of proving Rings

Proving rings are steel rings used for calibration of material

testing machines in situations where, due to their bulkness, dead
weight standards cannot be used.
P ring is a circular ring of rectangular section and may support
tensile or comprehensive force across its diameter.
the change in radius in the direction of force, is given by
where d is the outer diameter of the ring and
K is stiffness.
Deflection of the ring is measured using a precision micrometer.
To get precise measurements, one edge of the micrometer is
mounted on a vibrating reed which is plucked to obtain a vibratory
motion. The micrometer contact is then moved forward until a
noticeable damping of the vibration is observed.

LOAD CELLS
Use of Load Cell
Force transducers intended for weighing
purposes are called load cells. Instead of
using total deflection as a measure of
load, strain gauge load cells measure load
in terms of unit strains. A load cell utilizes
an elastic member as the primary
transducer
and
strain
gauges
as
secondary transducer. Figure shows one
such load cell arrangement.

DYNAMO METERS

Mechanical Dynamometer:
These come under the absorption type. An example for this kind is
prony brake.

In Prony brake, mechanical energy is converted into heat through dry

friction between the wooden brake blocks and the flywheel (pulley) of the
machine. One block carries a lever arm. An arrangement is provided to
tighten the rope which is connected to the arm. Rope is tightened so as to
increase ht frictional resistance between the blocks and the pulley.
If F Load applied and
Power dissipated
r - Lever arm
N Speed of flywheel (rpm)
Torque T = F.r
The capacity of Prony brake is limited because:
Due to wear of wooden blocks, friction coefficient varies. So, unsuitable for
large powers when used for long periods.
To limit temperature rise, cooling is to be ensured.

D.C. Dynamometer
D.C. dynamometer is usable as an absorption
as well as transmission dynamometer. So, it finds
its use in I.C. Engines, steam turbines and pumps.
A d.c. dynamometer is basically a d.c. motor with
a provision to run it as a d.c. generator where the
input mechanical energy, after conversion to
electrical energy, can either be dissipated through
a resistance grid or recovered for use. When used
as an absorption dynamometer it acts as d.c.
generator. (figure) Cradling in trunnion bearings
permits the determination of reaction torque.

Eddy CURRENT
DYNAMOMETER

Current or Inductor Dynamometers:

This is an example for absorption type dynamometers.

Principle:
When a conducting material moves through a
magnetic flux field, voltage is generated, which causes current to
flow. If the conductor is a wire forming a part of a complete circuit
will be caused to flow through that circuit, and with some form of
commutating device a form of a.c. or d.c. generator may result.

An eddy current dynamometer is shown in figure. It consists of a

metal disc or wheel which is rotated in the flux of a magnetic field.
The field if produced by field elements or coils excited by an
external source and attached to the dynamometer housing which
is mounted in trunnion bearings. As the disc turns, eddy currents
are generated. Its reaction with the magnetic field tends to rotate
the complete housing in the trunnion bearings. Water cooling is
employed.