Sampling 2

Sampling Methods
Defining the Target Population
It is critical to the success of the

research project to clearly define
the target population.
Rely on logic and judgment.
The population should be defined in

connection with the objectives of
the study.
Technical Terminology
An element is an object on which a

measurement is taken.
A population is a collection of elements

about which we wish to make an
inference.
Sampling units are nonoverlapping

collections of elements from the
population that cover the entire
population.
Technical Terms
A sampling frame is a list of sampling

units.
A sample is a collection of sampling units

drawn from a sampling frame.
Parameter: numerical characteristic of a

population
Statistic: numerical characteristic of a

sample
Errors of nonobservation
The deviation between an estimate

from an ideal sample and the true
population value is the sampling
error.
Almost always, the sampling frame

does not match up perfectly with the
target population, leading to errors of
coverage.
Errors of nonobservation
Nonresponse is probably the most serious

of these errors.
Arises
in three ways:
Inability
of the person responding to

come up with the answer
Refusal
to answer
Inability
to contact the sampled

elements
Errors of observation
These errors can be classified as

due to the interviewer, respondent,
instrument, or method of data
collection.
Interviewers
Interviewers have a direct and dramatic

effect on the way a person responds to a
question.
Most people tend to side with the view

apparently favored by the interviewer,
especially if they are neutral.
Friendly interviewers are more successful.
In general, interviewers of the same gender,

racial, and ethnic groups as those being
interviewed are slightly more successful.
Respondents
Respondents differ greatly in motivation

to answer correctly and in ability to do so.
Obtaining an honest response to sensitive

questions is difficult.
Basic errors
Recall bias: simply does not remember

Prestige bias: exaggerates to look better
Intentional deception: lying
Incorrect measurement: does not understand
the units or definition
Census Sample
A census study occurs if the entire

population is very small or it is
reasonable to include the entire
population (for other reasons).
It is called a census sample because

data is gathered on every member
of the population.
Why sample?
The population of interest is usually

too large to attempt to survey all of
its members.
A carefully chosen sample can be

used to represent the population.
The
sample reflects the characteristics

of the population from which it is
drawn.
Probability versus Nonprobability
Probability Samples: each member of

the population has a known non-zero
probability of being selected
Methods include random sampling, systematic

sampling, and stratified sampling.
Nonprobability Samples: members are

selected from the population in some
nonrandom manner
Methods
include
convenience
sampling,
judgment sampling, quota sampling, and
snowball sampling
Random Sampling
Random sampling is the purest form of
probability sampling.
Each member of the population has an equal and

known chance of being selected.
When there are very large populations, it is often

difficult to identify every member of the
population, so the pool of available subjects
becomes biased.
You can use software, such as minitab to generate

random numbers or to draw directly from the
columns
Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is often used instead of

random sampling. It is also called an Nth name
selection technique.
After the required sample size has been

calculated, every Nth record is selected from a
list of population members.
As long as the list does not contain any hidden

order, this sampling method is as good as the
random sampling method.
Its only advantage over the random sampling

technique is simplicity (and possibly cost
effectiveness).
Stratified Sampling
Stratified
sampling
is
commonly
used
probability method that is superior to random
sampling because it reduces sampling error.
A stratum is a subset of the population that share

at least one common characteristic; such as
males and females.
Identify relevant stratums and

representation in the population.
their
actual
Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient

number of subjects from each stratum.
Stratified sampling is often used when one or more

of the stratums in the population have a low
incidence relative to the other stratums.
Cluster Sampling
Cluster Sample: a probability sample in which

each sampling unit is a collection of elements.
Effective under the following conditions:
A good sampling frame is not available or costly, while

a frame listing clusters is easily obtained
The cost of obtaining observations increases as the

distance separating the elements increases
Examples of clusters:
City blocks political or geographical

Housing units college students
Hospitals illnesses
Automobile set of four tires
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is used in

exploratory research where the researcher
is interested in getting an inexpensive
approximation.
The sample is selected because they are

convenient.
It is a nonprobability method.
Often used during preliminary research efforts

to get an estimate without incurring the cost or
time required to select a random sample
Judgment Sampling
Judgment sampling
nonprobability method.
The sample is selected based upon

judgment.
is
common
an extension of convenience sampling
When using this method, the researcher

must be confident that the chosen
sample is truly representative of the
entire population.
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is the nonprobability

equivalent of stratified sampling.
First identify the stratums and their

proportions as they are represented in
the population
Then convenience or judgment sampling

is used to select the required number of
subjects from each stratum.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability

method used when the desired sample
characteristic is rare.
It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive

to locate respondents in these situations.
This technique relies on referrals from initial

subjects to generate additional subjects.
It lowers search costs; however, it introduces

bias because the technique itself reduces the
likelihood that the sample will represent a good
cross section from the population.
Sample Size?
The more heterogeneous a population is,

the larger the sample needs to be.
Depends on topic frequently it occurs?
For probability sampling, the larger the

sample size, the better.
With nonprobability samples, not

generalizable regardless still consider
stability of results
Response Rates
About 20 30% usually return a

questionnaire
Follow up techniques could bring it up to

about 50%
Still, response rates under 60 70%

challenge the integrity of the random
sample
How the survey is distributed can affect

the quality of sampling

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Sampling Methods

Defining the Target Population

It is critical to the success of the

Rely on logic and judgment.

The population should be defined in

An element is an object on which a

A population is a collection of elements

Sampling units are nonoverlapping

A sampling frame is a list of sampling

A sample is a collection of sampling units

Parameter: numerical characteristic of a

Statistic: numerical characteristic of a

The deviation between an estimate

Almost always, the sampling frame

Nonresponse is probably the most serious

of the person responding to

to contact the sampled

These errors can be classified as

Interviewers have a direct and dramatic

Most people tend to side with the view

Friendly interviewers are more successful.

In general, interviewers of the same gender,

Respondents differ greatly in motivation

Obtaining an honest response to sensitive

Recall bias: simply does not remember

A census study occurs if the entire

It is called a census sample because

The population of interest is usually

A carefully chosen sample can be

sample reflects the characteristics

Probability versus Nonprobability

Probability Samples: each member of

Methods include random sampling, systematic

Nonprobability Samples: members are

Each member of the population has an equal and

When there are very large populations, it is often

You can use software, such as minitab to generate

Systematic sampling is often used instead of

After the required sample size has been

As long as the list does not contain any hidden

Its only advantage over the random sampling

A stratum is a subset of the population that share

Identify relevant stratums and

Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient

Stratified sampling is often used when one or more

Cluster Sample: a probability sample in which

Effective under the following conditions:

A good sampling frame is not available or costly, while

The cost of obtaining observations increases as the

City blocks political or geographical

Convenience sampling is used in

The sample is selected because they are

Often used during preliminary research efforts

The sample is selected based upon

an extension of convenience sampling

When using this method, the researcher

Quota sampling is the nonprobability

First identify the stratums and their

Then convenience or judgment sampling