Data Presentation

CHAPTER II

Generally,
data
collected from different
sources are usually
unorganized and in a
form unsuitable for
immediate
interpretation.

In Statistical investigation,
once
pertinent
data
are
already gathered, the next
step is to present such data in
organized
form
using
appropriate tables and graphs.
In this chapter, we will
consider tabular presentation
through frequency distribution
and different methods of
graphical presentation.

FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
Suppose, a statistics
class with 60 students were
given an examination and the results are shown in Table
2.1 below.
Table 2.1
Test Scores Obtained by the Sixty Students in a Statistics
Class
48 73 57 57 69 88 11 80 82 47
46 70 49 45 75 81 33 65 38 59
94 59 62 36 58 69 45 55 58 65
30 49 73 29 41 53 37 35 61 48
22 51 56 55 60 37 56 59 57 36
12 36 50 63 68 30 56 70 53 28
Notice that in Table 2.1, no trend or pattern in the
scores of the students is evident. Thus, it is desirable
4
that the data be grouped into categories or intervals. The

Table 2.2

The Frequency Distribution of the Examination

Results of Sixty Students
In a Statistics Class
Exam Scores
Number of Students
11 22
23 34
35 46
47 58
59 70
71 82
83 94

3
5
11
19
14
6
2

From Table 2.2, we can say that

3 out of 60 students got scores
ranging from 11 to 22. Nineteen
students got scores from 47 to 58
and only 2 were to get scores
ranging from 83 to 94. Now, what if
the
students
are
classified
according to their respective
courses? See Table 2.3

Frequency Distribution of the

Sixty Students in Statistics Grouped
according
to their Respective Courses

Courses
Number of
Students
AB Mass Communication 12
BS Food Science
25
AB Political Science
15
BS Journalism
6
AB Economics
2
N = 60

Table 2.3 can be

interpreted in the same
way as Table 2.2. For
example, we can say
that 25 out of 60
students are taking BS
Food Science and only 2
students are taking AB

Table 2.2 and 2.3 are examples of

frequency distributions. In frequency
distribution, the data are summarized
into classes and categories to show the
frequency of occurrence of the values or
objects in each class or category.
Quantitative frequency distribution the data are grouped according to
numerical intervals or classes

Qualitative frequency distribution

the data are tabulated in terms of
categories
classes or class intervals
numerical intervals (11-22, 23-34,..)

The class interval 11 22 is the

first class or the lowest
interval. The interval 23 34 is
the second,
and 83 94 shall be treated as
the highest or the seventh
class interval.

Class limits - refer to the lowest

and the highest value that can
be entered in each class.
The lowest value that can go in
each class is known as the lower
class limit
The highest value that can go in
each class is called the upper
class limit.

To illustrate, consider the interval

35 46. This interval is defined
by the values 35 to 46. The
value 35 is the lower limit and
46 as the upper limit of the
interval.

Frequency - the number of values that

fall in a given interval
The frequencies of the distribution
are usually listed in one column and is
represented by f. Thus, in Table 2.2
the value 3 shall mean the frequency
of the first interval, 19 shall be the
frequency of the interval 47 58 and
so on.

In a frequency distribution, it is
assumed that the values are evenly
distributed within the interval. There are
some instances, however, where an
interval has to be summarized and be
represented by a single value.
This value called the midpoint or
class mark - serves as the
representative of a given interval.
15

Generally, the midpoint is

obtained by adding the class
limits and then dividing the sum
by two. Thus, if we let x be the
class midpoint and L1 and U1 as
the lower and upper limits of a
particular interval, then
x = (L1 + U1)/
2

EQN 2.1

CONSTRUCTION OF A FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION

We will now consider the procedure

on how to construct a frequency
distribution. The construction of this
distribution is a very simple activity that
requires the following steps.
1. Get the lowest and highest value in
the distribution. We shall let H and L be
the highest and lowest value in the
distribution.

CONSTRUCTION OF A FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION

2. Get the value of the range. The

range denoted by R, refers to the
difference between the highest and
lowest value in the distribution.
Thus,
R=H
L

EQN 2.2

3. Determine the number of classes. In the

determination of the number of classes, it
should be noted that there is no standard
method follow. Generally, the number of
classes must not be less than 5 and should
not be more than 15. In some instances,
however, the number of classes can be
approximated by using the relation.
where k is the number of classes
n is the sample size

k = 1 + 3.3
log n

EQN 2.3

4. Determine the size of the class

interval. The value of c can be
obtained by dividing the range by
the desired number of classes.
Hence,
C=R/k

EQN 2.4

5. Construct the classes. In constructing the

classes, we first determine the lowest lower
limit of the distribution. The value of this
lower limit can be chosen arbitrarily as long
as the lowest value shall fall on the first
interval and the highest value to the last
interval.
6. Determine the frequency of each class.
The determination of the number of
frequencies is done by counting the number
of items that fall in each interval.

Example 1. Using the steps discussed

above, construct the frequency distribution of
the data in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Test Scores Obtained by the Sixty
Students in a Statistics Class
48 73 57 57 69 88 11 80 82
47
46 70 49 45 75 81 33 65 38
59
94 59 62 36 58 69 45 55 58
65
30 49 73 29 41 53 37 35 61

Example 2. The intelligence quotients of 100 freshmen

students admitted at the college of Business Administration
of a certain university were taken and shown below.
95 11 11 11 98
93 11 91 94 11
5
0
9
2
1
99 11 11 11 10
96 10 10 10 10
1
0
5
7
7
5
8
8
83 85 10 89 10
10 10 10 94 11
9
7
0
3
0
6
10 10 10 10 10
12 90 10 11 10
6
1
8
5
1
0
0
2
7
10 10 90 10 87
11 94 11 10 10
7
2
5
8
7
8
0
91 88 12 10 10
10 10 10 10 97
Using the data 0
above,
with
6 construct
7
6a frequency
7
6 distribution
0
10 classes.
83 as
lowest
98 10Use10
10the10
10lower
11class
10 limit.
94 97

Example 3. A researcher assumed that age is one of

the factors affecting the level of developmentorientedness of mayors. He was able to gather the
ages of 75 mayors, shown below.
46
26
46
46
37
45
39
38

33
48
46
66
48
44
59
45

54
56
41
44
31
53
35
46

54
30
49
49
45
65
53
25

59
33
31
63
54
57
48
48

50
48
56
50
61
52
52

53
43
48
41
72
58
46

48
46
54
43
43
42
51

44
48
38
39
29
55
39

37
44
47
44
32
38
53

From the above data, construct a frequency

distribution with 8 classes. Use 25 as the lowest lower
class limit.

DERIVED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Given a frequency distribution, we can
construct other frequency distributions
like the relative frequency distribution and
the cumulative frequency distribution.

RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

The relative frequency distribution

of a given set of data shows the
proportion in percent the frequency
of each class to the total frequency.
The relative frequency denoted by
%f can be obtained by dividing the
class frequency by the sample size
and multiplying the result by 100.

RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

The formula for converting the class

frequency to percent, we have

%f = f / n x 100
Where%f = the relative frequency for
each class interval
f = the frequency of each class
n = the sample size

For illustration purposes, let us

consider the frequency distribution in
Table 2.2. the relative frequency of the
frequency of the first interval and be
obtained as follows:
%f = 3 / 60 x 100 = 5%
And the relative frequency of the
interval 23 24 shall be
%f = 5 / 60 x 100 = 8.33 %

If we continue converting class frequencies to present, then we

shall come up with the relative frequency distribution below.
Classes
%f
11 22
5
23 34
8.33
35 46
18.33
47 58
31.67
59 70
23.33
71 82
10.00
83 94
3.33
Total = 99.99 %
Theoretically, we should expect a total of 100 %. Although, we
obtained a total value of less than 100 %, such discrepancy is very
small and can be attributed it rounding off numbers. To interpret the
result, we can say that 5 % of the class got scores ranging from 11
12, 8.33 %of the class got scores ranging from 23 24 and so on.

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

The cumulative frequency distribution can also
be derived from the frequency distribution. This
distribution can be obtained by simply adding the
class frequencies. Unlike the relative frequency
distribution where the frequency are converted as
percents of the sample size, this type of distribution
tries to determine partial sums from the data
classified in terms of classes. This distribution
answers problems like like number of students who
got a passing mark, the number of employees who
got frequency rating from 75 % to 95 %, and so on.

There are two types of cumulative frequency

distribution. These are as follows:

1.Less
than
cumulative
frequency
distribution refers to the distribution whose
frequencies are less than or below the upper
class boundary they correspond to. We shall let
<cumf be the less than cumulative frequency.

2. Greater than cumulative frequency

distribution refers to the distribution whose
frequencies are greater than or above the lower
class boundary they correspond to. We shall let
>cumf be the greater than cumulative frequency.

The less than cumulative frequency

Classes
11 22
23 34
35 46
47 58
59 70
71 82
83 94

<cumf
3
8
19
38
52
58
60
32

The greater than cumulative frequency

Classes
11 22
23 34
35 46
47 58
59 70
71 82
83 94

>cumf
60
57
52
41
22
8
2
33

Notice that in the less than cumulative

frequency, the cumulative frequency 3
corresponds to the upper class boundary 22.5.
Hence, we can say that 3 students were able
to get scores less than 22.5. Also, the interval
23 24 contains the frequency 5. Hence, we
have 3 + 5 = 8 values less than the upper
class boundary 34.5. The interval 35 46
contains the frequency 11. Thus, we can say
that there are 3 + 5 + 11 = 19 values or
examination scores less than the upper class
boundary 47.5.

34

In the case of the greater than cumulative

frequency, the frequencies are added in
reverse starting from the frequency of the
highest interval. To illustrate, the number of
values corresponding to the interval 83 94 is
2. Hence, we may say that there are 2 values
greater than the lower class boundary 82.5.
Similarly, the interval 71 82 contains 6
values. Thus, we can say that 2 + 6 = 8 values
greater than the lower boundary 70.5. The
interval 59 70 contains 14 values. Therefore,
we can say that there are 2 + 6 + 14 = 22
values greater than the lower class boundary
58.5.

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
Graphical presentation refers to the pictorial
representation of data. In any statistical
investigation, the data presented in a graph
enables the researcher to see at the glance the
general characteristics and special features of
such data. Reduction into visual form, therefore,
often leads to the greater understanding that
could facilitate the solution of the problem. In this
section, we shall consider different methods of
data presentation: histogram, frequency polygon,
cumulative frequency polygon or ogive, and the
pie graph.
36

HISTOGRA
MHistogram refers to a data presentation that

uses bars in presenting the frequencies of each

class. The graph is usually presented in quadrant
I of a two-dimensional coordinate system.
Generally, the horizontal axis represents the
classes and the vertical axis represents the
frequency. The horizontal axis is subdivided into
equal subintervals where one subinterval
represents a class. It should be noted that
classes are one unit apart and are defined by
class limits. In the case of the frequencies, the
vertical axis is also subdivided into equal
37
intervals.

HISTOGRAM

After subdividing the axes, the bar is then

drawn for each class. The width of the bar is
equal to the size of the class interval and the
height corresponds to the frequency. This
implies that the frequency, the taller is the bar.
The histogram of frequency distribution of
Table 2.2 is shown on Figure 2.1.

38

Figure 2.1. Histogram of the Examination

Results of Sixty Students in Statistics
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Frequency

39

FREQUENCY POLYGON
In plotting the histogram, we assume that
frequencies are evenly distributed within the
interval. In a frequency polygon, we assume that
the frequencies of each interval are concentrated
at the midpoint of the interval. Instead of drawing
bars to represent the interval, we simply make a
dot above the bar to represent the position of the
midpoint within the interval. Thus, in a frequency
polygon, the horizontal axis is subdivided into
subintervals and the points that divide these
subintervals represent the midpoints.
40

FREQUENCY POLYGON

The frequency polygon based on the same

data as in the histogram in Figure 2.1 is
shown in Figure 2.2. Observe that the
frequency polygon in Figure 2.2 is not a
smooth continuous curve since these various
are joined by short segments.

41

Figure 2.2. The frequency Polygon of the

Examination of the Sixty Students in Statistics
f
25
20
15

10
5
0

16.5

28.5

40.5

52.5

64.5

76.5

88.5

0
42

<OGIVE
AND>OGIVE

The construction of <ogive and >ogive is

different from that of the frequency polygon.
Instead of plotting points corresponding to class
marks and frequencies, we plot points
corresponding to class boundaries and
cumulative frequencies. This is done because we
want our graph to visually represent the number
of cases falling down below down the particular
number of values.
43

In plotting the cumulative frequency of the

exam scores of the students in Statistic, we
shall plot the less than cumulative frequency
equivalent to 3 against the upper boundary
22.5, the cumulative frequency 8 versus 34.5,
and so on. Figure 2.3 shows the <ogive
and>ogive of the said examination scores.

44

Figure 2.3. The Graph of <Ogive and >Ogive of

Examination Scores of Sixty Students in Statistics
70
60
50
40

<OGIVE
>OGIVE

30
20
10
0
10.5

22.5

34.5

46.5

58.5

70.5

Free Template from www.brainybetty.com

82.5

94.5
45

The End
Thank You!!!