Indian Business Law

V BBM B BUSINESS LAW CLASS
CONTENTS
1. Introduction to Business Laws
2. Indian Contract Act, 1872
3. Patent Act, 1970
4. Trade & Merchandise Marks Act, 1958
5. Copyright Act, 1957
6. Consumer (Protection) Act, 1986
7. Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999
8. Information Technology Act, 2000
9. Environment Protection Act
10.Competition Act, 2002
Module I.
BUSINESS LAWS
What is law ?
1. A citizen may think of law

as a set of rules which he must obey.
2. A lawyer who practices law may think of law as a
vocation.
3. A legislator may look at law
as a something created by him.
4. A judge may think of law
as a guiding principles to be applied in making
decisions.
Law
Law includes all those rules

and regulations which
regulate our relations with
other individuals and with the
state.
Meaning of law
Law means a set of rules.
It may be defined as the rules of conduct
recognized and enforced by the state to
control and regulate
the conduct of people,
to protect their property and
contractual rights with a view to
securing justice, peaceful living and
social security.
Continue..
The law is not rigid, it is flexible.
Since the value system of society keeps on
changing , the law also keeps changing according
to the changing requirements of the society.
There are several branches of law such as
International law, constitutional law, criminal law,
civil law etc..
Every branch of law regulates and controls a
particular field of activity.
Why should one know law

Because ignorance of law is no excuse.
Ex : 1
If X is caught traveling in a train without ticket,
cannot plead that he was not aware of the rule
regarding the purchase of ticket and therefore, he
may be excused.
Ex : 2
If Y is caught driving scooter without driving
license, he cannot plead that he was not aware of
the traffic rule regarding the obtaining of a driving
license and therefore, he may be excused.
Definition of Law by Salmond
Law is
the body of principles recognized
and applied by the State in the
administration of the justice .
Object of law
The object of law is order, and the

result of order is that men are
enabled to look ahead with some
sort of security as to the future.
Need for the knowledge of law

Ignorantia juris non excusat
is a familiar maxim. This means
ignorance of law is not excusable.
The law now a days is a matter of great intricacy.

As such no sound business man would attempt to
solve important legal questions affecting his
business interest without expert legal advice.
BUSINESS LAWS
Business laws
are those laws which regulate the
conduct of the business.
Sources of Business Law

1.English Mercantile Law
2.The Statute Law
3.The Common Law (sometimes called as case
law)
4.Customs and Usages
Continue..
English Mercantile Law: English laws are the
primary sources of Indian Mercantile Law.
English laws are based on customs and usages
of merchants in England.
The Statute Law: The various Acts passed by
the Indian Legislature are the main sources of
mercantile law in India, e.g. Indian Contract Act,
1872, The Sale of Goods Acts,1930, The
Partnership Act, 1932, The Negotiable
Instruments Act 1881, The Companies Act, 1956.
Continue.
The Common Law : This source consists
of all those unwritten legal doctrines
embodying customs and traditions
developed over centuries by the English
courts. Thus, the common law is found in
the collected cases of the various courts of
law and is sometimes known as case law.
The common law emphasizes precedents.
Continue
Customs and usages: The customs and
usages of a trade are also one of the
sources of mercantile law in India. These
customs and usages govern the
merchants of a trade in their dealings both
each other. Some Acts passed by the
Indian Legislature recognizes the
importance of such customs and usages.
Module: II
Law of Contract
The law of contract is regulated by Indian Contract Act, 1872

OBJECT OF THE LAW OF CONTRACT
The law of contract is that branch of law which

determines the circumstances in which promises
made by the parties to a contract shall be legally
binding on them.
In simple words, the purpose of law of contract is to
ensure the realization of reasonable expectation of
the parties who enter in to contract.
OBJECT OF LAW OF CONTRACT
According to Sir William Anson,
The law of contract is intended to ensure

that, what a man has been led to
expect shall come to pass, and that
what has been promised to him shall
be performed.
JUS IN REM &

JUS IN PERSONAM
Law of contract creates,
jus in rem and jus in personam.
Jus in rem means,

right against the world at large.
jus in personam means,
the right against particular persons.
Definition of Contract
Section 2(h) of Indian Contract Act, 1872
defines a contract as ..
An agreement enforceable by law.
So, a contract is an agreement made

between two or more parties which
the law will enforce.
CONTRACT
An agreement enforceable by law is a
contract.
Contract = Agreement + Enforceability
Agreement = Offer + Acceptance
An agreement is defined as,

every promise and set of
promises, forming consideration
for each other [Sec2(e)].
Definition of Promise
A promise is defined thus:
When the person to whom the proposal is

made signifies his assent there to, the
proposal is said to be accepted.
A proposal, when accepted, becomes a
promise. [Section 2(b)].
An agreement is an accepted proposal.
Consensus ad idem
The essence of an agreement is meeting of the
minds of the parties.There must in fact, be
consensus ad idem.
Eg., A, (owns two horses named Rajhans &
Hansraj), is selling horse Rajhans to B.
B thinks he is purchasing Hansraj.
There is no consensus ad idem consequently no
contract.
Agreement and its types

Legal Agreement
Social Agreement
Domestic Agreement
Obligation
An agreement, to become a contract, must give rise to a
legal obligation or duty.
An obligation is a legal tie which imposes upon a definite
person or persons the necessity of doing or abstaining
from doing a definite act or acts.
Ex. A agrees to sell his car to B for Rs.1,00,000/-.The
agreement gives rise to an obligation on the part of A to
deliver the car to B on the part of B to pay Rs.1,00,000/to A. This is a legal agreement. This agreement is a
contract.
Obligation
An agreement which gives rise to social
obligation is not a contract .
An agreement is a wider term.
An agreement may be a social agreement or a
legal agreement.
If A invites B to a dinner and B accepts the
invitation, it is a social agreement.
Obligation
A social agreement does not give rise to contractual
obligations and is not enforceable in a Court of law.
It is only those agreements which are enforceable in a
court of law which are contracts.
A father promises to pay his son Rs.100/- every month
as pocket allowance. Later he refuses to pay.
The son cannot recover as it is a domestic
agreement and there is no intention on the part of the
parties to create legal relations.
All contracts are agreements, but all agreements

are not necessarily contracts
ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT: Sec 2(h) & sec(10)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Offer and Acceptance

Intention to create legal relationship
Lawful consideration
Capacity of parties-Competency
Free and genuine consent
Lawful object
Agreement not declared void
Certainty and possibility of performance
Legal formalities
ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT:
1.Offer and Acceptance:

There must be two parties to an
agreement, i.e., one party making the offer
and the other accepting it
The terms of the offer must be definite and
the acceptance of the offer must be
absolute and unconditional.
The acceptance must also be according to
the mode prescribed.

2.Intention to create legal relationship:
When two parties enter into an agreement, their intention
must be to create legal relationship between them .If
there is no intention on the part of the parties, there is
no contract between them.
E g., A husband promised to pay his wife a house hold
allowance of 30 pounds every month .Later the parties
separated and the husband failed to pay the amount. The
wife sued for the allowance .
Held, the agreement such as these were outside the realm
of contract altogether [Balfour vs.Balfour,1919].

3. Lawful consideration :
An agreement to be enforceable by law must be
supported by consideration.
Consideration means advantage or benefit moving from
one party to the other. It is the essence of a bargain.
In simple words, it means something in return.
A promise to do something and, getting nothing in
return is usually not enforceable by law.
Consideration need not be in cash or kind.
It may be an act or abstinence.
4.Capacity of parties-Competency:
The parties to the agreement must be capable of
entering in to a valid contract.
Every person is competent to contract if he,
(a) is of the age of majority,
(b) is of sound mind, and
(c) is not disqualified from contracting by any law to
which he is subject.
The flaw in capacity to contract may arise from minority,
lunacy, idiocy, drunkenness, etc.
5.Free and genuine consent:

It is essential to the creation of every contract that there
must be free and genuine consent of the parties to the
agreement.
The parties are said to be of the same mind when they
agree about the subject matter of the contract in the
same sense and at the same time(Sec.13).
There is absence of free consent if the agreement

is induced by coercion, undue influence, fraud,
misrepresentation and mistake(Sec.14).
6.Lawful object:
The object of the agreement must be lawful. In
other words, it means that the object must not
be (a) illegal, (b) immoral, or (c) opposed to
public policy(Sec.23)
If an agreement suffers from any legal flaw, it
would not be enforceable by law.
7. Agreement not declared void:

The agreement must not have been expressly declared
void by law in force in the country under the
provisions of sections 24 to 30 of the Indian Contract
Act,1872
Under these provisions, agreement in restraint of
marriage, agreement in restraint of legal proceedings,
agreement by way of wager have been expressly
declared as void
A void agreement is one which is not enforceable by
law.
8. Certainty and possibility of performance:

The agreement must be certain and not vague or
indefinite (Sec.29).
If it is vague and if it is not possible to ascertain its
meaning, it cannot be enforced.
Ex. A agrees to sell to B a hundred tons of
oil.
There is nothing whatever to show what kind of oil was

intended. The agreement is void.
9.Legal formalities:
A contract may be made by words spoken or
written.
As regards the legal effects, there is no difference
between a contract in writing and a contract made by
word of mouth.
It is however in the interest of the parties that the

contract should be in writing.
In some other cases, a contract, besides being a written
one, has to be registered.
Classification
of Contracts
Contracts may be classified according to,
1.Validity 2.Formation, and 3.Performance
VALIDITY
FORMATION
PERFORMANCE
1.Voidable Contract [2(i)] 1.Express Contract [9] 1.Executed Contract

2.Void Agreement [2(g)] 2.Implied Contract [9] 2.Executory Contract
3.Void Contract
[2(j)] 3.Quasi Contract
3.Unilateral Contract
4.Illegal Agreement
4.Bilateral Contract
5.Unenforceable Contract
1.Classification according to Validity

i] Voidable contract: An agreement which is
enforceable by law at the option of one party but
not at the option of the other or others is a
voidable contract [Sec.2(i)].
The party whose consent is not free may
either rescind (avoid or repudiate) the
contract, if he so desires, or elect to be
bound by it.
A voidable contract continues to be valid till it is
avoided by the party entitled to do so.
Classification of Contract
Example of Voidable Contract: A promises

to sell his car to B for rs. 2000. His
consent is obtained by use of force. The
contract is voidable at the option of A .
He may avoid the contract or elect to be bound
by it.
Continue..
Example 2: X threatens to kill Y if he does not sell his
house for rs. 1,00,000 to X. Y sells his house to X and
receives payment.
Here, Ys consent has been obtained by coercion and
hence this contract is voidable at the option of Y, the
aggrieved party.
If Y decides to avoid the contract, he will have to return
rs.1,00,000 which he had received from X.
If Y does not exercise his option to repudiate the contract
within a reasonable time and in the mean time, Z
purchases that house from X for rs. 1,00,000 in good
faith, Y cannot repudiate the contract.
Classification of Contract
ii] Void Agreement: An agreement not

enforceable by law is said to be void
[Sec.2(g)].Such agreements are
void-ab-initio which means that they are
unenforceable right from the time they are
made
E.g., An agreement with a minor or a person of

unsound mind is void-ab-initio because a minor or a
person of unsound mind is incompetent to contract
Contd..
iii] Void Contract: A contract which ceases
to be enforceable by law is a void contract.

[2 (j)].
A void contract is a contract which was valid when
entered into but which subsequently became void due to
impossibility of performance, change of law or some
other reason.
E.g., A contract to import goods becomes void,

when war breaks out between the countries.
Contd..
iv] Illegal Agreement: An illegal agreement
is one which is unlawful. Such an

agreement cannot be enforced by law.
Thus, illegal agreements are always voidab-initio( i.e., void from the very beginning)
E g :An agreement to import prohibited goods.
Continue..
Example: X agrees to pay Y rs.1,00,000 if Y kills Z and
claims rs.1,00,000. Y cannot recover from X because the
agreement between X and Y is illegal as its object is
unlawful
Effect on collateral agreements: In case of illegal
agreements, even the collateral agreements become void
Example: If in the above example, x borrows rs,1,00,000
from W who is aware of the purpose of the loan, the main
agreement between X and Y is illegal and the agreement
between X and W which is collateral to the main
agreement is also void. Hence, W cannot recover the
money from X.
Contd
.Illegal Agreement:
An illegal agreement is not only void as
between the parties but has this further effect
that even the collateral transactions to it become
tainted with illegality.
A collateral transaction is one which is
subsidiary, incidental or auxiliary to the principal
or original contract.
Contd..
v] Unenforceable Contract:
An unenforceable Contract is one which cannot
be enforced in a Court of law because of some

technical defect such as absence of writing or
where the remedy has been barred by lapse of
time.
The contract may be carried out by the parties

concerned; but in the event of breach or repudiation of
such a contract, the aggrieved party will not be entitled to
the legal remedies.
2.Classification according to Formation

A contract may be (a) made in writing or by word of
mouth, or (b) inferred from the conduct of the parties or
circumstances of the cases. These are the modes of
formation of contract.
On the basis of Formation Contract can be

classified as,
(i) Express Contract, (ii) Implied Contract, &
(iii) Quasi Contract.
Contd.
(i)
EXPRESS CONTRACT: If the terms and conditions of
contracts are expressly agreed upon (whether words

spoken or written) at the time of formation of contract,
the contract is said to be Express Contract .
Ex: X says to Y will you buy my car for rs. 1,00,000? Y
says to X I am ready to buy your car for rs.
1,00,000.
(ii) IMPLIED CONTRACT: One which is inferred from the
acts or conduct of the parties or course of dealings
between them.
An implied contract is one which is not an express
contract.
Continue
Ex: A transport company runs buses on different
routes to carry passengers. This is an implied
acceptance by X. Now, there is an implied contract
and X is bound to pay the prescribed fare.
Ex: X, a coolie in uniform picks up the baggage of
Y to do so and Y allows it from platform to the taxi
without being asked by to do so and Y allows it.
In this case there is ay the coolie and an implied
acceptance by the passenger. Now, there is an
implied contract between the coolie and the
passenger and the passenger is bound to pay for
the services of the coolie
Contracts classified.
(iii)QUASI CONTRACT: Strictly speaking Quasi
Contract is not a contract at all.

A contract is intentionally entered in to by the
parties.
A quasi contract, on the other hand is created
by law. It rests on the ground of equity that,
a person shall not be allowed to enrich
himself unjustly at the expense of another .
Continue.
Ex: A finds some goods belonging to B, it
is his duty to restore them to the rightful
owner. These contracts are based on the
principle of equity, justice and good
conscience.
The Indian Contract Act 1872, has
described the obligations arising under
these contracts as certain relations those
created by contracts
III. Classification according to Performance
(i) Executed Contract

(ii) Executory Contract
-Unilateral or One-sided Contract
-Bilateral Contract
.. Classification according to Performance

(I) EXECUTED CONTRACT:
Executed means that which is done.
An executed contract is one in which both the parties have
performed their respective obligations.
Ex: X offers to sell his car to Y for rs. 1,00,000. Y accepts xs offer. X
delivers the car to Y and Y pays rs. 1,00,000 to x. It is an
executed contract
(ii) EXECUTORY CONTRACT:
Executory means that which remains to be carried in to effect.
It is a contract where both the parties to the contract have still to
perform their respective obligations.
Ex: X offers to sell his car to Y for rs.1,00,000. Y accepts Xs offer. If the
car has not yet been delivered by X and the price has not yet
been paid by Y, it is an executory contract.
Continue.
Partly Executed and partly Executory Contract:
It is a contract where one of the parties to the
contract has fulfilled his obligation and the other
party has still to perform his obligation.
Ex. X offers to sell his car to Y for rs. 1,00,000 on a
credit of one month. Y accepts Xs offer. X
delivers the car to Y. Here, the contract is
executed as to X and executory as to Y.
ONE-SIDED OR UNILATERAL CONTRACT

Performance of only one party is outstanding.
BILATERAL CONTRACT.
Performance of both the parties remains outstanding.
CASE 1.
Over a cup of tea in a restaurant, A invites
B for a dinner at his house on a Sunday. B
hires a taxi and reaches As house at the
appointed time, but A fails to perform his
promise.
Can B recover any damage ???
VERDICT OF CASE 1.
No. [Balfour V. Balfour,1919]
A husband promised o pay his wife a household
allowance of 30 sterling pounds every month.
Later the parties separated and the husband
failed to pay the amount. The wife sued for the
allowance.
Held, agreement such as these were outside the
realm of contract altogether.
CASE 2.
(a) A engages B for a certain work and
promises to pay such remuneration
as shall be fixed by C.
B does the work.
(b) A and B promise to marry each
other.
(c) A takes a seat in public vehicle.
(d) A invites B for a card party
VERDICT OF CASE 2.
(a) There is a contract between A and B and A
is bound to pay the remuneration as shall be
fixed by C.
If C does not fix , or refuses to fix the
remuneration, A is bound to pay a reasonable
remuneration.
(b) There is a contract between A and B
(c) There is a contract between A and B
(D) There is no contract
CASE 3.
A forced B to enter in to a contract
at the point of pistol.
What remedy is available to B.
If he (B) does not want to be bound by
the contract ..??
VERDICT OF CASE 3.
He (B) can repudiate the contract as his
consent is not free.
CASE 4.
M mows Ls lawn without being asked by
L to do so. L watches M do the work but
does not attempt to stop him.
Is L bound to pay any charges to M ?
VERDICT OF CASE 4.
Yes, L is bound to pay M a reasonable
remuneration.
CASE 5.
C orally offered to pay A, an auto mechanic, Rs
50 for testing a used car which C was about to
purchase from D.
A agreed and tested the car. C paid A Rs 50 in
cash for his services.
Is the agreement between C and A,
(a) express or implied,..???
(b) executed or executory, ???
(c) Valid,void, voidable or unenforceable???
VERDICT OF CASE 5.
The agreement is,
(a) express,
(b)executed, and
(c) valid.
CASE 6.
A promises to pay B Rs.500,
if he(B) beats C.
B beats C, but A refuses to pay.
Can B recover the amount.. ???
VERDICT OF CASE 6.
No as the agreement is illegal.
CASE 7.
D lived as a paying boarder with a family.
He agreed with the members of the family
to share prize money of a newspaper
competition.
The entry sent by D won a prize 750
sterling pounds. He refused to share the
amount won.
Can the members of the family recover
their share .???
VERDICT OF CASE 7.
Yes, as there was mutuality in the
agreement between the parties and the
parties had intended to be bound.
OFFER & ACCEPTANCE

An offer is a proposal by one
party to another to enter in to a
legally binding agreement with
him.
Offer [Proposal]
A person is said to have made a proposal, when,
he,.
signifies to another his willingness to

do or to abstain from doing anything
with a view to obtaining the assent of
that other, to such act or abstinence
[Sec.2(a)]
ELEMENTS REQUIRED FOR A

VALID OFFER
1. It must be made by one person to
another person. In other words, there can
be no proposal by a person to himself
ex: X says to Y that he wants to sell his
car to himself for rs. 1 lakh.
There is no proposal because there can be
no proposal by a person to himself.
Continued
2. It must be an expression of readiness or
willingness to do (i.e., a positive act) or to
abstain from doing something (i.e., a
negative act)
ex: X offers to sell his car to Y for rs. 1 lakh. It is a
positive act on the part of X
ex: X offers not to file a suit against Y if Y pays X
the outstanding amount of rs. 1,00,000 . It is a
negative act on the part of X
Continued.
3. It must be made with a view to obtain the
consent of that other person to proposed act
or abstinence.
ex: X jokingly says to Y I am ready to sell my car
for rs.1000. Y, knowingly that X is not serious in
making the offer, says I accept your offer.
In this case, Xs offer was not the real offer as he
did not make it with a view to obtain the consent
of Y.
PROMISOR-PROMISEE
The person making the offer is known as the,
offeror,
proposer or
promisor, and
the person to whom it is made is called the,
offeree or
proposee.
When the offeree accepts the offer, he is called
the acceptor or promisee [Sec.2(c)].
How an offer is made
E.g., An offer may be made by

express words, spoken or written.
This is known as Express offer.
When A says to B, will you purchase my
house at Meerut for Rs.5,00,000 ?
How an offer is made

An offer may be inferred from the conduct of the
parties or the circumstances.
This is known as Implied Offer.
E.g.,When a transport company runs a bus on a
particular route, there is an implied offer by the

transport company to carry passengers for a
certain fare.
Specific and General Offer..
When an offer is made to a particular person, it is

called specific offer.
E.g. A offers to sell car to B [only] for
Rs.1,00,000.
When an offer is made to the world at large, it is
called general offer. A general offer can be
accepted by any person by fulfilling the terms of
offer.
E.g., Mrs Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co.[1893].
MRS. CARLIL V.CARBOLIC

SMOKE BALL CO.
Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. advertised in the newspaper
that it would pay rs.1000 to anyone who contracts
influenza after using the smoke ball of the company
according to the printed instructions.
Mrs.Carlil uses the smoke ball according to the printed
directions but subsequently she contracted influenza.
She filed a suit for the reward.
It was held that she was entitled to recover the reward
because she had accepted the offer by fulfilling the
terms of the offer.
What constitutes an offer.

1.The offer must show an obvious intention
on the part of the offeror to be bound by it.
Thus, if A jokingly offers B Rs 10 for his
typewriter and B knowing that A is not serious,
says I accept, As proposal does not
constitute an offer.
What constitutes an offer
2.The offeror must make the offer with

a view to obtaining the assent of the
offeree to such act or abstinence.
3.The offer must be definite.
4.It must be communicated to the
offeree.
LEGAL RULES FOR A VALID

OFFER
1.Intention to create legal relationship

2.Certain and unambiguous terms
3.Different from a mere declaration of intention
4.Different from an invitation to offer
5.Communication
6.A statement of price is not an offer
7.No term the Non-compliance of which
amounts to Acceptance
LEGAL RULES AS TO OFFER

1.Offer must be such in law is capable
of being accepted and giving rise to
legal relationship.
ex:
Rose & Frank Company v.

Crompton Brothers
Ex: Rose & Frank Company was appointed as
selling agents in North America by Crompton
Brothers by an agreement. One of the clauses in
the agreement provided this agreement is not
entered into formal or legal agreement and shall
not be subject to legal jurisdiction in the law
courts.
It was held that this agreement was not a legally
binding contract because there was no intention
to create legal relations.
2.Certain and Unambiguous Terms

The terms of the offer must be certain and
unambiguous and not vague.
If the terms of the offer are vague, no
contract can be entered into because it is
not clear as to what exactly the parties
intended to do.
Continued.
Ex 1: X offers to sell to Y a 100 tons of
oil.
If X is a dealer in coconut oil or mustard
oil, his offer is not certain because it is
not clear that he wants to sell coconut oil
or mustard oil.
But if X is a dealer in coconut oil only, it is
clear that he wants to sell coconut oil.
Hence, the offer is certain.

3.An offer must be distinguished from;
(i) A declaration of intention and an
announcement.:
The offer must be distinguished from a mere
declaration of intention . Such statement or
declaration merely indicates that an offer will be
made or invited in future,
(ii) An invitation to make an offer or
to do business.
A mere declaration of intention

Ex 1: A father wrote to his would be sonin-law that his daughter would have a
share of what he left after the death of his
wife.
It was held, that the letter was a mere
statement of intention and not an offer.
(Farine v. Fickar)
Continued
Ex 2: X, a broker of Bombay wrote to Y a
merchant of Ghaziabad stating the terms on
which he is willing to do business.
It was held that the letter was a mere statement
of intention and not an offer.
(Devidatt v. Shriram)
Ex 3: A notice that the goods stated in the notice
will be sold by tender does not amount to an
offer to sell.( Spencer v. Harding)
Continued..
Ex 4: An auctioneer advertised in a newspaper
that a sale of office furniture will be held on a
particular day.
Mr. X with the intention on buy to furniture came
from a distant place for the auction but the
auction was cancelled.
It was held that Mr X cannot file a suit against the
auctioneer for his loss of time and expenses
because the advertisement was merely a
declaration of intention to hold auction and not
an offer to sell. (Harris v. N.Nickerson)
Invitation to offer
An offer must be distinguished from an
invitation to offer. In case of an invitation to
offer, the person making an invitation
invites others to make an offer to him.
Continued
Ex 1: Goods were displayed in the shop for sale
with price tags attached on each article and self
service system was there. One customer
selected the goods.
It was held that the display of goods was only an
intention to offer and the selection of the goods
was an offer by the customer to buy and the
contract was made when the cashier accepted
the offer to buy and received the price.
(Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v. Boots
Cash Chemists Ltd.)
Continued.
Ex 2: A prospectus issued by a company
for subscription to its shares and
debentures is only an invitation to general
public to make an offer to buy the
shares/debentures which may or may not
be accepted by the company.
4.Offer must be communicated:

An offer must be communicated to
the person to whom it is made. An
offer is complete only when it is
communicated to the offeree. One
can accept the offer only when he
knows about it
Continued
Thus , an offer accepted without its knowledge
does not confer any legal rights on the acceptor.
Ex 1: S offered a reward to anyone who traces
his lost dog. F brought the dog without any
knowledge of the offer of reward. It was held F
was not entitled to the reward because F cannot
be said to have accepted the offer which he did
not know.( Fitch v.Snedaker,1868)
Lalman Shukla v.Gauri Dutt

G sent his servant L to trace his lost nephew.
When the servant had left, G announced a
reward of Rs.500 to anyone who traces the
missing boy. L found the boy and brought him
home. When L came to know about the reward,
he filed a suit against G to recover the reward.
It was held that L was not entitled to reward
because he did not know about the reward when
he found the missing boy.
Legal rules as to offer..
6.A statement of price is not an offer.

HARVEY Vs. FACEY,[1893]
E.g., Three telegrams were exchanged between Harvey
and Facey.
1. Will you sell your Bumper Hall Pen ? Telegraph
lowest cash price-answer paid. [Harvey to Facey]
2. Lowest price for Bumper Hall Pen 900 pounds.
[Facey to Harvey]
..6.A statement of price is not an offer.

HARVEY Vs. FACEY,[1893]
3. We agree to buy Bumper Hall Pen for the sum of

900 pounds asked by you [Harvey to Facey]
Held, there was no concluded contract between Harvey
and Facey
The first telegram asked two questions;
(i) the willingness of Facey to sell, and
(ii) the lowest price. Facey replied only to the second
question and gave his lowest price, i.e., he supplied
mere information and no offer had been made by him to
sell. There could be contract only if he had accepted
Harveys last telegram.
Special Terms of Contract
The special terms of the offer must

also be communicated along with the
offer.
If the special terms of the offer are
not communicated, the offeree will not
be bound by those terms.
Continued..
The question of special terms arises
generally in case of standard form of
contracts.
Standard contracts are made with big
companies such as insurance
companies, railways, shipping
companies, banking companies,
hotels, dry cleaning companies.
Continued
Since such companies are in position to
exploit the weakness of general public by
including certain terms in the contract
which may limit their liabilities, it is
provided that the special terms of the offer
must be brought to the notice of general
public.
Continued
Ex 1: X purchased a ticket Dablin to White Haven and on
the back of the ticket, certain conditions were printed
one of which excluded the liability of the company for
loss, injury or delay to the passengers or his luggage.
X never looked at the back of the ticket and there was
nothing to draw his attention to the conditions printed on
the back side. His luggage was lost due to the negligence
of the servants of the shipping company, it was held that
X was entitled to claim compensation for the loss of his
luggage in spite of the exemption clause because there
was no indication on the face of the ticket to draw his
attention to the special terms printed on the back of the
ticket.
Special Terms of Contract

E.g., A hotel put up a notice in a bed room,
exempting the proprietor from liability for
loss of clients goods.
Held, the notice was not effective as it came to the
knowledge of the client only when the contract to
take a room had already been entered in to.
Olley v. Marlborough Court Ltd., [1949].
Example of Special Terms of Contract

A deposited a bag in the cloak room of a railway
station. On the face of the ticket, issued to him,
was written see back. One of the printed
conditions, limited the liability of the company for
loss of a package to 10 pounds.The bag was
lost and P claimed 24.50 pounds, as its value.
Held, P was bound by the conditions on the
back of the ticket even if he had not read them
[Parker Vs. S E Rail Co.(1877) ]
Example of Special Terms of Contract

If conditions are printed on the back of a ticket, but
there are no words at all on the face of it to draw the
attention of the person concerned to those
conditions, he is not bound by them;
Example: C hired a deck chair from Municipal
Council. He paid a hire of 2 $ for two sessions of 3
hours .He sat on the chair, it broke and injured him.
Held ,Council was liable
[Chapleton Vs. Barry Urban District Council,1940].
AGREEMENT TO AGREE IN FUTURE IS NOT A

CONTRACT
If the parties have not agreed upon the terms of the
contract, but have made an agreement to agree in

future, there is no contract.
An agreement to be finally settled must comprise all
the terms which the parties intend to introduce in to
the agreement.
E.g., An actress was engaged in a theatrical company
for a certain period .One of the terms of the
agreement was that if the play was shown in
London, she would be engaged at a salary to be
mutually agreed upon. Held , there was no contract.
ACCEPTANCE
Acceptance
Acceptance means giving consent to the offer.
It is an expression by the offeree of his
willingness to be bound by the terms of the offer.
According to sec 2(b) of the Indian Contract
Act,1872, A proposal is said to have accepted
when the person to whom the proposal is made
signifies his assent thereto. A proposal when
accepted becomes a promise.
Acceptance
An acceptance may be express or implied.
It is express when it is communicated by

words, spoken or written or by doing some
required act.
It is implied when it is to be gathered from
the surrounding circumstances of the
cases or the conduct of the parties.
Acceptance
Who can accept offer ?
Acceptance of a particular offer: Specific Offer
When an offer is made to a particular person, it
can only be accepted by him alone. If it is
accepted by any other person, there is no valid
acceptance.
The rule of law is clear that if you propose to
make a contract with A, B cannot
substitute himself for without your consent.
Acceptance of a general offer

When an offer is made to
world at large, any persons to
whom the offer is made can
accept it
[Mrs.Carlill Vs.Carbolic Smokeball Co.(1893)]
Legal Rules as to Acceptance

The acceptance of an offer is the very essence of a
contract. To be legally effective, it must satisfy the
following conditions:
1.It must be absolute and unconditional i.e., it

must conform with the offer.
2.It must be communicated to the offeror
3.It must be according to the mode prescribed
or usual and reasonable mode.
4.It must be given within a reasonable time
..Legal Rules as to
Acceptance
5.It cannot precede an offer.
6.It must show an intention on the part of
the acceptor to fulfill terms of the promise.
7.It must be given by the party or parties
to whom the offer is made.
8.It must be given before the offer lapses
or before the offer is withdrawn.
9.It cannot be implied from silence.
1. It must be absolute and unconditional

i.e., it must conform with the offer.
An acceptance, in order to be binding, must be
absolute and unqualified [Sec.7(1)] in respect of all
terms of the offer, whether material or immaterial,
major or minor.
If the parties are not ad idem on all matters
concerning the offer and acceptance, there is no
contract.
Examples: a) A made an offer to B to purchase a house
with possession from 25 th July. The offer was followed by
an acceptance suggesting possession from 1 st August.
Held, there was no contract.
[ Rutledge
Vs .Grant (1828)]
.1.It must be absolute and unconditional

i.e., it must conform with the offer.
Examples:
b) M offered to sell a piece of land to N at
280 sterling pounds. N accepted and
enclosed 80 sterling pounds with a promise
to pay the balance by monthly installments
of 50 sterling pounds each. Held, there
was no contract between M and N, as the
acceptance was on condition. [Neale Vs.
Merret (1930)].
.1.It must be absolute and unconditional

i.e., it must conform with the offer
c) N offered to buy Js horse if warranted

quiet in harness. J agreed to the price and
warranted the horse in quiet double harness.
Held, there was no acceptance
[Jordon Vs.Norton,1838]
d) A says to B, I offer to sell my car for Rs.50,000.B
replies, I will purchase it for Rs.45,000. This is no
acceptance and amounts to counter offer.
To conclude a contract between the

parties, the acceptance must be
communicated in some perceptible form.
A mere resolve or mental determination
on the part of the offeree to accept an
offer, when there is no external
manifestation of the intention of the
intention to do so, is not sufficient.
[ Bhagwandas Kedia Vs. Giridharilal (1966)]

Examples:
a) A tells B that, he intends to marry C. But

tells C nothing of his intention. There is no
contract even if C is willing to marry A.
b) A draft agreement relating to supply of coal
was sent to the manager of a railway company
for his acceptance. The manager wrote the word
approved and put the draft in the drawer .
Held, there was no contract.
[Brogden Vs. Metropolitan Rail Co.(1877)].

F offered to buy his nephews horse for 30 sterling
pounds saying: If I hear no more about it I
shall consider the horse is mine at 30 sterling
pounds. The nephew did not write to F at all, but
he told his auctioneer who was selling his horses
not to sell that particular horse because it had been
sold to his uncle. The auctioneer inadvertently sold
the horse. Held, F had no right of action against
the auctioneer as the horse had not been sold to F,
his offer of 30 pounds not having been accepted
[Felthouse Vs. Brindley (1862)].
3.It must be according to the mode prescribed or

usual and reasonable mode.
The communication must be according to

the mode prescribed [ Sec.7(2)]
Eg. If the Offeror has sought the
communication of acceptance from offeree
by telephone it cannot be given by post.
In case, the acceptance is made in a manner other than
the mode prescribed but the offeror does not raise any
objection within a reasonable time, the acceptance will
be binding.
4. It must be given within a reasonable time

If any time limit is specified ,the acceptance to an offer
must be given within a reasonable time. If it is not given
within the reasonable time, the offer lapses.
In Ramsgate Victoria Hotel Ltd. Vs.

Montefiore(1886)
M applied for the shares of R & Co. on 8 th June.
But the Company did not intimate about
allotment until November. M refused to take
shares. Held, the offer was lapsed by
unreasonable delay.
5.It cannot precede an offer.
In a company shares were

allotted to a person who had not
applied for them. Subsequently
when he applied for shares , he
was unaware of the previous
allotment. The allotment of
shares previous to application is
invalid.
6.It must show an intention on the part of the acceptor to

fulfill terms of the promise.
If no such intention is present, the

acceptance is invalid.
7. It must be given by the party or parties to whom the offer

is made.
Acceptance must be communicated by the
offeree himself or by a person who has the
authority to accept.
If acceptance is communicated by an
unauthorized person, it will not give rise to legal
relations.
Continued...
Ex: P applied for the post of a headmaster in a school. The
managing committee passed a resolution approving P to the
post but this decision was not communicated to P.
But one member of the managing committee in his
individual capacity and without any authority informed P
about the decision.
Subsequently, the managing committee cancelled its
resolution and appointed someone else. P filed a suit for
breach of contract.
It was held that Ps suit was not maintainable because
there was no communication of acceptance as he was not
informed about his appointment by some authorized person.
(Powell v. Lee)
8.It must be given before the offer lapses or before

the offer is withdrawn.
The acceptance must be given before the offer
lapses or is withdrawn. In other words, if an
acceptance is made after the lapse or withdrawal
of the offer, it will not give rise to legal relations.
Ex: X offered by a letter to sell his car for
Rs.1,00,000. Subsequently, x withdrew his offer by
a telegram which was duly received by Y. After the
receipt of telegram, Y sent his acceptance to X. In
this case, the acceptance is invalid because it was
made after the effective withdrawal of the offer.
9.It cannot be implied from silence.
The acceptance of an offer cannot be

implied from the silence of the offeree
or his failure to answer, unless the
offeree has by his previous conduct
indicated that his silence means that
he accepts. A wrote to B., I offer you my
car for Rs.10,000. If I dont hear from you in
seven days , I shall assume that you accept.
B did not reply at all. There is no contract.
Communication of Offer, Acceptance and

Revocation
An offer, its acceptance and their revocation
(withdrawal) to be completed must be
communicated.
When the parties are at distance and the offer
and acceptance and their revocation are made
through post, i.e., by letter or telegram, the rules
contained in Secs.3 to 5 apply.
Mode of communication (Sec.3)

The communication of offer, its acceptance and their
revocation respectively are deemed to be made by any
(a) act, or
(b) omission, of the party offering, accepting or revoking.
In other words, offer, acceptance or revocation may be
communicated by words spoken or written, or by
conducted.
Thus installation of a weighing machine at a public
place is an offer, putting of a coin in the slot of the
machine is the acceptance of the offer, and the
switching off the machine amounts to revocation of
the offer.
When is communication complete

[Sec.4]
Communication of offer: The communication of
offer is complete when it comes to the
knowledge of the person to whom it is made.
E.g., A proposes by a letter, to sell a

house to B at a certain price. The letter is
posted on 10th July.
It reaches B on the 12th July.
The communication of offer is complete
when B receives the letter i.e., 12th July.
When is communication complete[S.4]

Communication of Acceptance: Communication of acceptance is
complete* as against the proposer, when it is put in the course of
transmission to him, so as to be out of power of the acceptor ;
* as against the acceptor, when it comes to the knowledge of
the proposer.
E.g., B accepts A s proposal, in the above case, by a letter sent by
post on 13th instant. The letter reaches A on 15th instant. The
communication of Acceptance is complete, as against the A, when
the letter is posted, i.e., on 13th, as against B, when the letter is
received by A, i.e., on 15th.
When is communication complete..
The communication of revocation is complete:

Revocation means taking back
recalling or withdrawal. It may be
revocation of offer or acceptance. The
communication of a revocation is complete--as against the person who makes it, when it
is put in to the course of transmission to
the person to whom it is made so as to be out
of the power of the person who makes it ;
-as against the person to whom it is made,
when it comes to his knowledge(Sec.4)
When is communication complete
Ex. A proposes, by a letter, to sell his house

to B at a certain price .The letter is posted
on 15th May. It reaches B on 19th May.
A revokes his offer by telegram on 18th May.
The telegram reaches B on 20th May. The
revocation is complete as against A when
the telegram is dispatched i.e., on 18th
May. It is complete as against B when he
receives it. i.e., on 20th May.
Time for Revocation of Offer and Acceptance (Sec.5)
Time for Revocation of Proposal(Sec.5,para 1)

A proposal may be revoked at any time before the
communication of its acceptance is complete as
against the proposer, but not afterwards.
Ex. A proposes by a letter sent by post to sell his house
to B. The letter is posted on the 1st of the month. B
accepts the proposal by a letter sent by post on the
4th.The letter reaches A on the 6th.
A may revoke his offer at any time before B posts his letter of
acceptance, i.e., on 4th but not afterwards.
B may revoke his acceptance at any time before the letter of
acceptance reaches A, i.e., on 6th but not afterwards.
CONTRACTS OVER TELEPHONE

OR TELEX OR ORAL
COMMUNICATION
A contract by telephone or telex has the

same effect as an oral agreement entered
into between the parties when they are
face to face.
But the offeree must make sure that his
acceptance is properly received, i.e.,heard
and understood by the offeror (Kanhaiyalal
v. Dineshwara Chandra)
Example
A makes an offer to B across a river or a
courtyard. B shouts back accepting As
offer, but A does not hear Bs reply as it was
drowned by an aircraft flying overhead.
There is no contract at that moment. If B
wishes to make a contract, he must wait till
the aircraft is gone and then shout back his
acceptance so that A can hear what B says.
Until A hears Bs reply, there is no contract.
WHEN DOES AN OFFER COME

TO AN END?
1. By communication of notice of
revocation by the offeror at any time before
its acceptance is complete as against him
Ex: At an auction sale, A makes the
highest bid for Bs goods. He withdraws
the bid before the fall of the hammer. The
offer has been revoked before its
acceptance.
Continued..
2. By lapse of time:
If it is not accepted within the prescribed time,
then it ends in revocation of offer.
If no time is prescribed, it lapses by the expiry
of a reasonable time.
Ex: On June 8 M offered to take shares in R
company. He received a letter of acceptance on
November 23. He refused to take the shares.
Held, M was entitled to refuse as his offer had
lapsed as the reasonable period during which it
could be accepted had elapsed (Ramsgate
Victoria Hotel Co. v. Montefiore)
Continued.
3. By non-fulfilment by the offeree of a
condition precedent to acceptance:
Ex: S, a seller, agrees to sell certain goods
subject to the condition that B, the buyer,
pays the agreed price before a certain
date. If B fails to pay the price by that
date, the offer stands revoked.
Continued.
4. By death or insanity of the offeror
provided the offeree comes to know of it
before acceptance.
5. If a counter-offer is made to it:
6. If an offer is not accepted according to
the prescribed or usual mode:
OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE:PRACTICAL PROBLEMS

1.Are the following offers valid ?
(a) A garment store gave the following advertisement in a
newspaper: Special sale for tomorrow only. Mens night suits
reduced from Rs200 to Rs100.
(b) P says to Q I will sell you a camera. P owns three
different types of cameras of different prices.
(c) An auctioneer displays a refrigerator before a gathering
in an auction sale.
(d) A advertises in The Statesman that he would pay Rs 200
to anyone who finds and returns his lost dog.
Solution for Case.1

1.(a),(b) and (c) there is no offer.
In case of (d) there is a valid offer.
Any person can accept it by
performing the act with knowledge of
the reward.
[Fitch vs.Snedaker]
Case 2.
A tells B in the course of a
conversation with him that he will give
Rs10,000 to anyone who marries his
daughter with his consent. B marries
As daughter with As consent .
Is he entitled to recover the amount ?
Solution for Case.2

No, as what A tells B is a statement of intention.
Case.3
A sees a rare book displayed in a shop.
It is labeled First Edition Rs15.
A enters the shop and puts Rs 15 on the counter
and asks for the book.
seller does not agree to sell that book, says, the
real price of the book is Rs 50 and that it had
been marked as Rs 15 by mistake.
Is the bookseller bound to sell the book for
Rs. 15 ?
Solution for Case.3

No.
(Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain
Vs. Boots Cash Chemists).
Case.4
A sent a telegram to B, will you sell your car?

Quote lowest price.
B sent a reply Lowest price Rs 25,000.

A sent a second telegram to B.
I agree to buy your car for Rs 25,000.
B there after refuses to sell.
(1) Can A compel B to do so ?
(2) Is there a contract between A and B ?.
(3) What is the name of the case related to this?
Solution for Case.4

(a) No (b) No. (c) ( Harvey vs. Facey)
Case.5
A sent a letter to B offering to sell his house to B. The
next day, A wrote another letter revoking his offer.
Meanwhile, B had accepted As offer by return of post.
What is Bs remedy, if any, against A:
(a) If As letter of revocation reaches B before Bs letter
of acceptance reaches A;
(b) If Bs letter of acceptance is lost in the post;
If Bs letter of acceptance is posted an hour after
posting of As letter of revocation ?
Solution for Case.5

In all three cases there is a concluded
contract between A and B.
I.e., as soon as the letter of acceptance is posted by B.
Case.6
B offered to sell his house to A for Rs.50,000.A

accepted the offer by post.
On the next day, A sent a telegram withdrawing
the acceptance which reached B before the
letter.
(a) Is the revocation of acceptance valid ?
(b) Would it make any difference if both the letter
of communicating acceptance and the telegram
communicating revocation of acceptance,
reach B at the same time?
Solution for Case. 6

(a) Yes.
(b) If A opens the telegram first (and this would
be normally so in case of rational person) and
reads it, the acceptance stands revoked.
If he reopens the letter first and reads it,
revocation of acceptance is not possible as the
contract has already been concluded.
CONSIDERATION
Consideration is one of the essential elements to
support a contract. Subject to certain exceptions,
an agreement made without consideration is
nudum pactum (a nude contract) and is void.
Justice Patterson defines consideration in the
following words: Consideration means something
which is of some value in the eye of lawIt may
be some benefit to the plaintiff or some
detriment to the defendant. [Thomas vs.
Thomas(1842)].There are two leading cases which
explain this point.
Abdul Aziz vs. Masum Ali (1914)

The secretary of a Mosque, Committee filed a suit to
enforce a promise which the promisor had made to
subscribe Rs.500 to the rebuilding of a mosque.
Held, the promise was not enforceable because
there was no consideration in the sense of
benefit , as the person who made the promise
gained nothing in return for the promise made, and
the secretary of the Committee to whom the
promise was made, suffered no detriment as
nothing had been done to carry out the repairs.
Hence the suit was dismissed.
Kedarnath vs. Gauri Mohammad

Calcutta [1886]
The facts of this case were almost similar to those of the
previous case, but the secretary in this case incurred a
liability on the strength of the promise. Held, the amount
could be recovered, as the promise resulted in a
sufficient detriment to the secretary. The promise
could, however, be enforced only to the extent of the
liability (detriment-loss) incurred by the secretary.
In this case, the promise, even though it was gratuitous,
became enforceable because on the faith of the promise
the secretary had incurred a detriment (loss).
Definition of Consideration
[Section 2(d) of Indian Contract Act,1872]
When at the desire of the promisor, promisee
or
any other person has done or
abstained from doing or
does or
abstains from doing, or
promises to do or
to abstain from doing, something, such act or
abstinence or promise is called a consideration
for the promise.
Analysis of
Definition of Consideration
(1) An act, i.e., doing of something. In this sense consideration is in
an affirmative form.
Example: A promises B to guarantee payment of price of the goods
which B sells on credit to C. Here selling of goods by B to C is
consideration for As promise.
(2) An abstinence or forbearance, i.e., abstaining or refraining from
doing something. In this sense consideration is in a negative form.
Example :A promises B not to file a suit against him if he pays him
Rs.500.The abstinence of A is the consideration for Bs payment.
(3) A return promise.
Example: A agrees to sell his horse to B for Rs 10,000. Here Bs
promise to pay the sum of Rs.10,000 is the consideration for A s
promise to sell the horse, and As promise to sell the horse is the
consideration for Bs promise to pay the sum of Rs.10,000.
Legal Rules as to Consideration

1.It must move at the desire of the promisor.
2.It may move from the promisee or any other
person.
3.It may be an act, abstinence or a return
promise.
4.It may be past, present or future.
5.It need not be adequate.
6.It must be real and not illusory
7.It must be something which the promisor is
not already bound to do.
8.It must not be illegal, immoral or opposed
to public policy
(Sec.23).
Legal Rules as to Consideration.

1.It must move at the desire of the
promisor:
An act constituting consideration must have
been done at the desire or request of the
promisor. If it is done at the instance of
a third party or without the desire of the
promisor, it will not be a good
consideration.
Example:A saves Bs goods from fire without
being asked to do so. A cannot demand payment
for his services.
2.It may move from the promisee or

any other person.
Consideration may move from promisee or
any other person, i.e., even a
stranger. This means that as long as
there is consideration for a promise
it is immaterial who has furnished it.
But the stranger to consideration
will be able to sue only if he is a
party to the contract.

2.It may move from the promisee or any other person
Example: An old lady, by a deed of gift, made

over certain property to her daughter D, under
the direction that she should pay her aunt, P
(sister of the old lady), a certain sum of money
annually. The same day D entered in an agreement
with P to pay her the agreed amount. Later, D
refused to pay the amount on the plea that no
consideration had moved from P to D. Held, P was
entitled to maintain suit as consideration had
moved from the old lady, sister of P, to the
daughter.
[Chinnayya vs.Ramayya(1882)]

3.It may be an act, abstinence or a a return promise.( The following are
good consideration for a contract)
(1)Forbearance to sue: If a person who could sue

another for the enforcement of a right agrees not to
pursue his claim, this constitutes a good
consideration for the promise by the other person.
This results in a benefit to the person not sued and
a detriment to the person who could sue.
Example: A borrows from B Rs.100 at 20 percent p.a., and
fails to pay the amount. When B is about to file a suit,
A agrees to pay a higher rate of interest. B, as a
result, does not file the suit. This forbearance on the
part of B to file a suit is a sufficient consideration
and B can enforce the promise by A to pay the higher rate
of interest.

3.It may be an act, abstinence or a return promise.
(2)Compromise of a disputed claim:
Compromise is a kind of forbearance. Originally ,
the claim should be reasonable and the person
claiming should honestly believe that it is a valid
claim. He should also act bona fide (in good
faith) .
(3) Composition with creditors: A debtor who is
financially embarrassed may call a meeting of his
creditors and request them to accept a lesser amount
in satisfaction of their debt. If the creditors
agree to it, the agreement is binding both upon the
debtor and the creditors and this amounts to a
compromise of the claims of the creditors.

4.It may be past, present or f uture.
(1)Past Consideration:
When consideration by a party for a
present promise was given in the past,
i.e., before the date of the promise, it
is said to be past consideration.
Example: A renders some service to B at
latters desire. After a month B promises to
compensate A for services rendered to him.
It is past consideration. A can recover
promised amount.

(2) Present or Executed Consideration:
When consideration is given simultaneously with
promise, i.e., at the time of promise, it is said
to be present consideration. In case sale, for
example, consideration is present or executed.
Example: A receives Rs. 50 in return for which he
promises to deliver certain goods to B. The money A
receives which he promises to deliver certain goods
to B. The money A receives is the present
consideration for the promise he makes to deliver the
goods.

(3) Future or executory consideration:
When consideration from one party to the other is
to pass subsequently to the making of the
contract, it is future or executory consideration.
Example:
D promises to deliver certain goods to P after
a week; P promises to pay the price after a
fortnight. The promise of D is supported by the
promise of P. Consideration in this case is
future or executory.

5.It need not be adequate .
Consideration, as already explained, means
something in return.
This something in return need not
necessarily be equal to something
given.
The law simply provides that a contract
should be supported by consideration.
So long as consideration exists, the Courts
are not concerned as to its adequacy,
provided it is of some value.
Continued
Ex:
A agrees to sell a horse worth rs.1,000 for
rs.10.
A denies that his consent to the
agreement was freely given.
The inadequacy of the consideration is a
fact which the Court should take into
account in considering whether or not As
consent was freely given.
6.It must be real, and not illusory.
Although consideration need not be adequate, it must

be real, competent and of some value in the eyes of
the law.
There is no real consideration in the following cases:
(1) Physical Impossibility: A promises to put life in to
Bs dead wife and B should pay him Rs.500.As
promise is physically impossible of performance.
(2) Legal Impossibility: A owes Rs 100 to B. He
promises to pay Rs.20 to C, the servant of B, who in
return promises to discharge A from the debt. This
is legally impossible because C cannot give
discharge for a debt due to B, his master [Harvey vs.
Gibbons, (1675)].

.6.It must be real, and not illusory
(3) Uncertain consideration:
A engages B for doing a certain work and promises to pay a
reasonable sum. There is no recognized method of
ascertaining the reasonable remuneration. The promise
is unenforceable as consideration is uncertain.
(4) Illusory consideration:
Two of the crew of a ship deserted it half way through a
voyage. The captain thereby promised to divide the
salary of the deserters among the rest of the crew if they
worked the vessel home. Held, they could not recover
the amount as the consideration was illusory. They were
already under an obligation to bring the vessel home.

7.It must be something which the
not already bound to do.
promisor is
A promise to do what is already bound to do,

either by general law or under an existing
contract, is not a good consideration for a
new promise, since it adds nothing to the
pre-existing legal or contractual obligation.
Likewise a promise to perform a public
duty by a public servant is not a
consideration.
Continued.
Ex:
(1) A promised to pay B, who had received
summons to appear at a trial in a civil suit, a
certain sum being a compensation for the loss of
time during his attendance.
Held, the promise was without consideration, for
B was under a duty imposed by law to appear
and give evidence.
(Collins v. Godefroy,(1831))
Continued.
Ex:
(2) There was a promise to pay to a lawyer an
additional sum if the suit was successful. Held,
the promise was void for want of consideration.
The lawyer was under a pre-existing contractual
obligation to render the best of his services
under the original contract.
But where a person being already under a legal
or contractual duty to do something undertakes
to do something than he is bound to do under
the original contract, this will be a good
consideration for the promise.

8.It must not be illegal, immoral or opposed
to public policy.
The consideration given for an

agreement must not be unlawful.
Where it is unlawful, the Court do not
allow an action on the agreement.
STRANGER TO CONTRACT
It is a general rule of law that only
parties to a contract may sue and be
sued on that contract. This rule is known
as the Doctrine of privity of contract.
Privity of contract means relationship
subsisting between the parties who have
entered in to contractual obligations.
It implies a mutuality of will and creates a
legal bond or tie between the parties to
contract.
Two Consequences of the

Doctrine of Privity of Contract
(1) A person who is not a party to a

contract cannot sue upon it even though
the contract is for his benefit and he
provided consideration.
(2) A contract cannot confer rights or
impose obligation arising under it on
any person other than the parties to
it.
Thus, if there is a contract between A and B, C
cannot enforce.
[Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre
Co.Ltd. Vs. Selfridge
& Co.Ltd.,( 1915)]
Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co.Ltd.

Vs.
Selfridge & Co.Ltd.,(1915)
S bought tyres from the Dunlop Rubber Co.

and sold them to P, a sub-dealer, who
agreed with S not to sell below Dunlops
list price and to pay the Dunlop Co., 5
pounds as damages on every tyre P
undersold.
P sold two tyres at less than the list price
and thereupon the Dunlop Co. sued him for
the breach.
Held, the Dunlop Co. could not maintain
the suit as it was a stranger to the contract.
Exceptions to the rule Stranger to a contract

cannot sue.
1.A trust or charge: A person (called
beneficiary) in whose favor a trust or
other interest is created can enforce it
even though he is not a party to the
contract.
Example: A agrees to transfer certain
properties to be held by T in trust for the
benefit of B. B can enforce the agreement
(i.e., the trust) even though he is not a party
to the agreement
[M.K. Rapai vs. John(1965)]
Exceptions to the rule

stranger to a contract cannot sue.
2.Marriage settlement, partition or other
family arrangements.
Example: Two brothers, on a partition of
joint properties, agreed to invest in equal
shares a certain sum of money for the
maintenance of their mother.
Held, she was entitled to require her sons
to make the investment.
[Shuppu Ammal vs. Subramaniam (1910) Madras High
Court.]
Exceptions to the rule stranger to a contract cannot

sue.
3.Acknowledgement or estoppel:
Where the promisor by his conduct,
acknowledges or otherwise constitutes
himself as an agent of a third party, a binding
obligation is thereby incurred by him towards
the third party.
Example: A receives some money from T to be paid
over to P. A admits of this receipt to P. P can
recover the amount from A who shall be regarded as
the agent of P.
Exceptions to the rule stranger to a contract cannot

sue.
4.Assignment of contract : Where a benefit

under a contract has been assigned, the assignee
can enforce the contract subject to all equities
between the original parties to the contract
e.g. the assignee of an insurance policy.
5.Contracts entered in to through an agent:
The principal can enforce the contracts entered
in to by his agent provided the agent acts within
the scope of his authority and in the name of the
principal.
A contract without consideration is void
-Exceptions
The general rule is ex nudo pacto non oritur

actio,
i.e., an agreement made without
consideration is void.
Sec.25 and 185 dealt with the exceptions to
this rule.
In such cases agreements are enforceable
even though they are made without
consideration. These cases are---
-Exceptions.
1.Love and Affection [Sec.25(1)]:

Such agreement made without
consideration is valid if:
(i) It is expressed in writing
(ii) It is registered under the law
(iii) It is made on account of love and
affection, and
(iv) It is between parties standing in a near
relation to each other.
Examples:
(a) F ,for natural love and affection, promises
to give his son, S, Rs.1,000.F puts his
promise to S in writing and registers it .
There is a contract.
(b) By a registered agreement, V on account of
natural love and affection for his brother,
R, promises to discharge his debt to B. If
V does not discharge the debt, R may
discharge it and then sue V to recover the
amount.
[Venkataswamy vs. Ramaswamy, (1903)

-Exceptions
2.Compensation for voluntary services.[Sec.25(2)]
A promise to compensate, wholly or in part, a person who
has already voluntarily done something for the promisor, is
enforceable, even though without consideration. In simple
words, a promise to pay for a past voluntary service is
binding.
Examples: (a) A finds Bs purse and gives it to him. B
promises to give rs. 50 .There is a contract.
(b) A says to B, At the risk of your life you saved me
from a serious accident. I promise to pay you
Rs.1,000.There is a contract between A and B.
Continued
(c) X, a neighbor helped putting down the
fire in Ys house. Afterwards , Y promised
X to give Rs.1000. This is a valid contract
even though the consideration did not
move at the desire of the promisor.
(d) X, supported Ys infant son. Y
promised to pay Xs expenses in so doing.
This is a valid contract. Here, X has done
that act which Y was legally bound to do.

-Exceptions
3.Promise to pay a time barred debt:

Such promise with out consideration is valid if:
(1) It is made in writing
(2) It is signed by the debtor or his agent, and
(3) It relates to a debt which could not be enforced by a
creditor because of limitation.
Note: According to the Law of limitation, a debt which
remains unpaid or unclaimed for a period of 3 years
becomes a time barred debt which is legally not
recoverable.

-Exceptions
Example: D owes C Rs.1,000 but the

debt is barred by the Limitation Act. D
signs a written promise o pay C Rs.500
on account of the debt. This is a
contract.

-Exceptions
4.Completed Gift:
The rule No consideration, no contract
does not apply to completed gifts..
e.g., X transferred some property to Y by
a duly written and registered deed as a
gift. This is a valid contract even
though no consideration.
5.Agency [Sec.185]
No consideration is necessary to create
an agency.

-Exceptions
6.Charitable Subscription:
Where the promisee on the strength of
the promise makes commitments,
i.e., changes his position to his
detriment [Refer. Kedarnath Vs. Gauri Mohammad].
Important Cases
Abdul Aziz, V. Masum Ali:

The secretary of a Mosque, Committee filed a
suit to enforce a promise which the promisor had
made to subscribe rs.500 to the re-building of a
mosque.
Held, the promise was not enforceable because
there was no consideration in the sense of
benefit , and the secretary of the Committee to
whom the promise was made, suffered no
detriment as nothing had been done to carry out
the repairs. Hence the suit was dismissed.
Continued
Kedar Nath v. Gauri Mohamed:

The facts of this case were almost similar to
those of the previous case, but the secretary in
this case incurred a liability on the strength of the
promise.
Held, the amount could be recovered, as the
promise resulted in a sufficient detriment to the
secretary.
In this case, the promise, even though it was
gratuitous, became enforceable because on the
faith of the promise the secretary had incurred a
detriment.
Consideration: Practical Problems
1. A
promises a subscription of
Rs.10,000 to the National
Defense Fund. He does not pay.
Is there any legal remedy
against him?
Answer: Case.1
No. (Abdul Aziz vs. Masum Ali)
Case.2
Can A recover in the following cases?
(a) B gets in to difficulties while swimming
in the river Ganga and cries for help. A
hears the cry, removes his coat and
dives in to water and rescues B. B, who
is full of gratitude, promises to pay A
Rs.200 but fails to do so.
Case.2
(b) B writes to A, At the risk of
your own life, you saved me
from a serious motor accident. I
promise to pay you Rs.1,000.
Case.2
(c) While B is away on holiday, a storm
damages the roof of Bs house, and his
neighbor, A, carries out the necessary
repairs. On his return, B promises to pay
A Rs.200 for the work done and
materials supplied.
Case.2
(d) A finds Bs purse and
gives it to him. B promises A
to give him Rs.100
Case.2
(e) A, who is Bs friend, seeks the
help of a few persons in putting
down a fire in Bs house. B promises
to give A Rs. 100 for his timely help.
Answers to case.2
Yes. A can recover the amount
from B in all the cases. [Sec.25(2)]
Case.3
A owes B Rs.1,000 but the debt is
barred by limitation. A gives a
letter to B agreeing to pay him Rs
500 on account of the debt.Is this
a valid agreement?
Answer to Case.3
Yes. [Sec.25(3)]
Case.4
A, being a dire need of money, sells his
new car purchased two months ago at a
cost of Rs.1,72,000 for Rs.11,000.
Afterwards A seeks to set aside the
contract on the ground of inadequacy of
consideration.
Will he succeed?
Answer to Case.4
No.
Case.5
A,B, and C enter in to a contract under
which A promises both B and C that if B
will dig As garden, he (A) will give Rs.50
to C. Can C compel A to pay the money
on Bs digging As garden according to
the terms of the contract?
Give reasons.
Answer to Case.5
Yes.
Case.6
As Uncle in a sudden display of
generosity promises him a watch as a gift
on his next birthday.
If the uncle fails to give the watch, can A
do anything about it legally?
Answer to Case.6
No.
Case.7
H who was badly in need of money offered to
sell his piano worth rs.5,000 to C for rs.4,000. C
refused to buy . H gradually lowered his price
until rs.1000 was reached, which C accepted.
Before the piano was delivered, H received an
offer of a larger sum from T, and he refused to
carry out the contract with C, claiming that the
consideration was inadequate. Is H liable to pay
damages to C for failure to carry out his part of
the contract?
CAPACITY TO CONTRACT
[COMPETENCY OF THE PARTIES]
The parties who enter in to contract must have capacity to do so.

Capacity here means competency of the parties to enter in to
contract. According to Sec.10 an agreement becomes a contract if it
is entered in to between the parties who are competent to contract
According to Sec.11 every person is competent to enter in to
contract who (a) is of the age of majority.
(b) is of sound mind, and
(c) is not disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is
subject.
Thus Section 11 declares the following persons to be incompetent to
contract; 1.Minor
2.Persons of unsound mind
3.Persons disqualified by any law to which they are
subject.
1.Minors
According to Indian Majority Act,1875, a minor is a
person who has not completed 18 years of age. In the
following two cases , he attains majority after 21 years of
age.
(1) Where a guardian of a minors person or property
has been appointed under the Guardians and Wards
Act,1890 or
(2) Where the superintendence of a minors property is
assumed by a Court of Wards.
Minors Agreements
1. An agreement with or by a minor is void and
inoperative ab initio.
[Mohiribibi vs. Dharmodas Ghose,(1903) Calcutta High Court]
In this case a minor mortgage his house in favor of a money lender

to secure a loan of Rs.20,000 out of which the mortgagee (the
money lender) paid the minor a sum of Rs.8000. Subsequently the
minor sued for setting aside the mortgage, stating that he was
underage when he executed the mortgage.
Held, the mortgage was void and, therefore, it was cancelled.

Further the money lenders request for the repayment of the amount
advanced to the minor as part of the consideration for the
mortgage was also not accepted.
Minors Agreements
2.He can be a promisee or a beneficiary:
Incapacity of a minor to enter in to a contract means
incapacity to bind himself by a contract. There is nothing
which debars from becoming a beneficiary. Such contracts
may be enforced at his option, but not at the option of the
other party. [Sharafat Ali Vs. Noor Mohammed(1924)].
Example: (a) M, aged 17, agreed to purchase a second-hand
scooter for Rs.5,000 from S. He paid Rs.200 as advance
and agreed to pay the balance the next day and collect the
scooter. When he came with the money the next day, S
told him that he had changed his mind and offered to return
the advance. S cannot avoid the contract, though M may,
if he likes.
Minors Agreements
3.His agreement cannot be ratified by him on attaining
the age of majority.
Consideration which passed under the earlier contract
cannot be implied in to the contract which the minor
enters on attaining majority.
[Nazir Ahmed Vs. Jiwan Dass
Thus consideration given during minority is no
consideration.
If it is necessary a fresh contract may be entered in to
by the minor on attaining majority provided it is
supported by fresh consideration.
[S.Shanmugam Pillai vs.K.S.Pillai (1973)SC].
Minors Agreements
4.If he has received any benefit under a void
agreement , he cannot be asked to compensate
or pay for it. Sec.65 provides for restitution in
case of agreements discovered to be void does
not apply to a minor.
Example: M, a minor, obtains a loan by mortgaging
his property. He is not liable to refund the loan.
Not only this, even his mortgaged property
cannot be made liable to pay the debt.
Minors Agreements
5.He can always plead minority:
Even ,if he has , by misrepresenting his age,

induced the other party to contract with
him, he cannot be sued in contract for
fraud because if the injured party were
allowed to sue for fraud, it would be giving
him an indirect means of enforcing the
void agreement.
Minors Agreements
Example: S, minor, by fraudulently representing himself to
be of full age, induced L to lend him 400 POUNDS. He
refused to repay it and L sued him for the money .
Held, the contract was void and S was not liable to repay
the amount [Leslie vs. Shiell,1914] Lawrence J observed
that in this case Wherever an infant is still in
possession of any property in specie which he has
obtained by his fraud, he will be made to restore to its
former owner. But I think it is incorrect to say that he can
be made to repay money which he has spent , merely
because he received it under a contract induced by
fraud.
Minors Agreements
The Court may, where some loan or

property is obtained by the minor by some
fraudulent representation and the
agreement is set aside , direct him, on
equitable considerations, to restore the
money or property to the other party.
Where as the law gives protection to the
minors , it does not give them liberty to
cheat men.
Minors Agreements
6.He cannot enter in to a contract of partnership.
But he may be admitted to the benefits of an
already existing partnership with the consent of
the other partners.
7.He cannot be adjudged insolvent.
This is because he is incapable of contracting
debts.
Minors Agreements
8.He is liable for the necessaries supplied or
necessary services rendered to him or anyone
whom he is legally bound to support.
9.He can be an agent. An agent is merely a
connecting link between his principal and third
party. As soon as the principal and the third party
are brought together, the agent drops out. A
minor binds the principal by his acts without
incurring any personal liability.
Minors Agreements
10. His parents / guardian are /is liable for
the contract entered in to by him , even
though the contract is for the supply of
necessaries to the minor. But if the minor
is acting as an agent for the
parents/guardian, the parents/guardian
shall be liable under the contract.
Minors Agreements
11.A minor is liable in tort (A civil wrong).
But where a tort arises out of contract
a minor is not liable in tort as an indirect
way of enforcing a invalid contract.
Minors Agreements
Minors Liability for Necessaries

of Life.
A minor is liable to pay out of his property for
necessaries supplied to him or to anyone whom he is
legally bound to support.(Sec.68). The claim arises not
out of contract but out of what is known as quasi
contracts.
Again it is only the property of the minor that is liable for
meeting the liability arising out of such contracts. He is
not personally liable.
The law has provided this exception intentionally
because if it were not so, it would be impossible for
minors even to live.
What are necessaries of life ?

The term necessaries is not defined in, ICA,1872.
The English Sale of Goods Act 1893, defines it in Sec.2
as goods suitable to the condition in life of such infant
or other person, and to his actual requirement at the time
of sale and delivery.
Such goods need not necessarily belong to a class of
goods, but they must be (I) suitable to the position and
financial status of the minor, and (ii) necessaries both at
the time of sale and at the time of delivery
2.Persons of Unsound Mind.
One of the essential conditions of competency of parties to a contract

is that they should be of sound mind.Sec.12 lays down a test of
soundness of mind. It reads as follows:
A person is said to be of sound mind, for the purpose of
making a contract if, at the time when he makes it, he is capable
of understanding it and of forming a rational judgment as to its
effect upon his interests.
A person who is usually of unsound mind but occasionally
of sound mind, may make a contract when he is of sound mind.
A person who is usually of sound mind, but occasionally of
unsound mind, may not make a contract when he is of
unsound mind. EXAMPLES..
Persons of Unsound Mind.
Examples:
(a) A patient in a lunatic asylum, who is at intervals of

sound mind, may contract during those intervals.
(b) A sane man who is delirious from fever, or who is so
drunk that he cannot understand the terms of a
contract, or form a rational judgment as to its effect on
his interests, cannot contract while such delirium or
drunkenness lasts.
Persons of Unsound Mind

Soundness of mind of a person depends upon two facts:
1.His capacity to understand the contents of the business
concerned, and
2.His ability to form a rational judgment as to its effect upon
his interests.
If a person is incapable of both, he suffers from unsoundness of
mind. Whether a party to a contract is of sound mind or not is a
question of fact to be decided by the Court. There is a
presumption in favor of sanity.
If a person relies on unsoundness of mind, he must prove it
sufficiently to satisfy the Court.
Contracts of Persons of
Unsound Mind
LUNATICS. A lunatic is a person who is mentally
deranged due to some mental strain or other personal
experience. He suffers from intermittent intervals of
sanity and insanity. He can enter in to contract when
he is of sound mind.
IDIOTS. An idiot is a person who has completely lost his
mental powers.
He does not exhibit understanding of even ordinary
matters. Idiocy is permanent where as lunacy denotes
periodical insanity with lucid intervals. An agreement of
an idiot, like that of a minor, is void.
Contracts of
Persons of Unsound Mind
DRUNKEN OR INTOXICATED PERSONS.
A drunken or intoxicated person suffers from
temporary incapacity to contract, i.e. ,at the
time when he is so drunk or intoxicated that
he is incapable of forming a rational
judgment.
However, persons of unsound mind are liable
for necessaries supplied to them or to anyone
whom they are legally bound to support .
PERSONS DISQUALIFIED BY
LAW
(other persons)
1. Alien Enemies
2. Foreign Sovereigns
3. Convicts
4. Insolvents
3. Other persons
ALIEN ENEMIES. Contracts with alien enemy [an alien
whose State is at war with the Republic of India] may be
studied under two heads, namely(a) contracts during the war, and
(b) contracts made before the war
(a) During the continuance of the war, an alien enemy can
neither contract with an Indian subject nor can he sue in
an Indian Court. He can do so only after he receives a
license from the Central Government.
3. Other persons
ALIEN ENEMIES.
(b) Contracts made before the war may either be
suspended or dissolved. They will be dissolved if they
are against the public policy or if their performance
would benefit the enemy. For this purpose even an
Indian who resides voluntarily in a hostile country, or who
is carrying on business there would be treated as an
alien enemy.
Foreign sovereigns, their diplomatic staff

and accredited representatives of foreign
states
They have some special privileges and
generally cannot be sued unless they of
their own submit to the jurisdiction of our
law Courts. But an Indian has to obtain
prior sanction of the Central government in
order to sue them in our law Courts.
CORPORATIONS & COMPANY

A corporation is an artificial person created by law,
having a legal existence apart from its members. It may
come in to existence by a special Act of Legislature
registration under Companies Act, 1956.
A contractual capacity of a company [corporation] is
regulated by the terms of Memorandum of Association
and the provisions of Companies Act,1956. If it exceeds
its powers, whether expressly conferred on it or derived
by reasonable implication from its objects clause in the
Memorandum, the contract ultra vires and is void.
INSOLVENTS & CONVICTS

INSOLVENTS:
When a debtor is adjudged insolvent is deprived of his
power to deal in that property. It is only the official
Receiver or Official Assignee who can enter in to
contracts relating to his property, and sue and be sued
on his behalf.
CONVICTS:
A convict when undergoing imprisonment is incapable of
entering in to contract.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
1.A minor fraudulently represented to a
money lender that he was of full age and
executed a mortgage deed for
Rs.10.000. Has the money lender any
right of action against the minor for the
money lent or for damages for
fraudulent misrepresentation ?
Answer to Case.1
No. (Mohiri bibi v. Dharmodas Ghose)
(Leslie vs. Shiell)
Case 2.
2.A minor is supplied with necessaries
of life by a grocer. He makes out a
promissory note in favor of the grocer. Is
the grocer entitled to claim payment
under the promissory note (a) from
minor personally, (b) against his estate.
Answer to Case.2
(a) No
(b) Yes(Sec.68)
Case .3
3. M, a minor aged 17, broke his right arm
in a hockey game. He engaged a
physician to set it. Does the physician
have a valid claim for his services ?
Answer to Case.3
Yes, but it is only Ms estate which will be
liable(sec.68).
Case.4
A, an adult, said to M, a minor: I will not
pay the commission I promised you for
selling my magazines. You are a minor
and cannot force me to pay. Is A right?
Answer to Case.4
No. A minor can be a beneficiary or a
promisee.
Free Consent
Meaning of Consent [Sec.13]
Consent means acquiescence or an act of

assenting to an offer.
Two or more persons are said to

consent when they agree upon
the same thing in the same
sense.
What is Free Consent ?

Meaning of Free Consent[Sec.14]
A consent is said to be free when it is not
caused by1.Coercion as defined in Sec15, or
2.Undue Influence in Sec.16 or
3.Fraud as defined in Sec.17,or
4.Misrepresentation as defined n Sec.18 or
5.Mistake, subject to the provisions of
Sec.20,21 or Sec.22].
Coercion [Sec.15]
When a person is compelled to enter in to a
contract by the use of force by the other party or
under a threat, coercion is said to be
employed.
Coercion is the committing or threatening to
commit, any act forbidden by the Indian Penal
Code,1860 or unlawful detaining, or threatening
to detain, any property, to the prejudice of any
person whatever, with the intention of any
person to enter in to an agreement.
(Sec.15).Examples are.
Examples of
Coercion
a. A threatens to shoot B if he (B) does not release him (A)

from a debt which A owes to B. B releases A under the
threat. The release has been brought about by Coercion.
b .A threatens to kill B if he does not lend Rs.1,000 to C. B
agrees to lend the amount to C. The agreement entered in
to under coercion.
Consent is said to be caused by coercion when it is obtained
by:
(1) Committing or threatening to commit any act forbidden by
the Indian Penal Code,1860. Example
A threatens to shoot B if he (B) does not lend
Rs 500.B lends the amount. The threat amounts to coercion.
Examples of
Coercion
2. Unlawful detaining or threatening to detain any

property.
An agent refused to hand over the account

books of a business to the new agent unless
the principal released him from all liabilities.
The principal had to give a release deed as
demanded. Held, the release deed was
voidable at the option of the principal.
[Muthia vs.Muthu Karuppa,(1927)Madras High
Court]
Effect of Coercion
When consent to an agreement is caused by
coercion, fraud or misrepresentation, the
agreement is a contract voidable at the option
of the party whose consent was so
caused(Sec.19).
According to Sec.72, a person to whom money
has been paid, or anything delivered by mistake
or under coercion, must repay or return it.
Threat to commit suicide-Does it amount to coercion?
Chikham Amiraju vs.Seshamma(1917)Madras HC.

In this case, a person held out a threat of
committing suicide to his wife and son if they did
not execute a release in favor of his brother in
respect of certain properties. The wife and son
executed the release deed under the threat.
Held, the threat of suicide amounted to
coercion within Sec 15 and the release deed
was, therefore, voidable.
Threat to commit suicide-Does it amount to coercion?

[Purabi Mukherjee vs. Basudev
Mukherjee(1969)Calcutta]
It was observed that, one committing suicide places
himself or herself beyond the reach of the law, and
necessarily beyond the reach of any punishment too.
But it does not follow that suicide is not forbidden by the
Penal Code. Sec.306 of the Penal Code punishes
abetment of suicide. Sec.309 punishes an attempt to
commit suicide.
Thus suicide as such is no crime, as indeed, it cannot be.
But its attempt is: its abetment too is. So, it may very
well be said that the Penal Code does forbid suicide.
As such a threat to commit to suicide amounts to coercion.
Duress
In the English Law, the near equivalent of the
term coercion is duress. Duress involves
actual or threatened violence over the person of
another (or his wife, parent, or child) with a
view to obtaining his consent to the agreement.
If the threat is with regard to the goods or
property of the other party, it is not duress.
UNDUE INFLUENCE
Section 16(1)
Definition:
A contract is said to be induced by undue
influence
(a) where the relations subsisting between
the parties are such that one of the parties
is in a position to dominate the will of other
(b) and uses that position to obtain an unfair
advantage over the other.
A person is deemed to be in a position to dominate the

will of another.
Sec 16(2)
(a) Where he holds real or apparent authority over the
other.E.g.,the relationship between master and servant,
doctor and patient.
(b) Where he stands in a fiduciary relation.[Relation of trust
and confidence] to the other. E.g., father and son, solicitor
and client, trustee and beneficiary, and promoter and
company.
(c) Where he makes a contract with person whose mental
capacity is temporarily or permanently affected by reason
of age, illness or bodily distress. E.g., Between a medical
attendant and his patient.
Difference Between
Coercion and Undue Influence
1.The consent is given under

the threat of an offence
(Forbidden by Indian Penal
Code)
1.The consent is given by a

person who is so situated in
relation to another that the
other person is in a position to
dominate the will of the other.
2.Coercion is mainly of
physical character. (Violent
force)
3.It involves criminal act.
2.Undue influence is of moral

character. (Mental pressure)
3.No criminal act is involved.
4.There must be an intention of

causing any person to enter in
to contract.
4.Uses to obtain an unfair

advantage over the other.
Examples of UNDUE INFLUENCE

1. A spiritual guru induced his devotee
to gift him the whole of his property in

return of a promise of salvation of the
devotee.
Held, the consent of the devotee was
given under undue influence
[Mannu Singh vs.Umadat Pandey (1890)]
Examples of UNDUE INFLUENCE
2.An illiterate elderly woman made a

deed of gift of practically the whole of
her property to her nephew who
managed her affairs. Held, the gift
should be set aside on the ground of
undue influence. [Inche Noriah vs.Shaikh
Allie Bin Omar(1929)]
EFFECT OF UNDUE
INFLUENCE
When a consent
to an agreement is caused by
undue influence, the agreement is a contract

voidable at the option of the party whose consent
was so caused.
Discretion of Court: Any such contract may be set

aside either absolutely or if the party who was
entitled to avoid it has received any benefit
thereunder, upon such terms and conditions as the
court may seem just and equitable.
Continued..
Ex 1: As son forged Bs name to a promissory
note. B under threat of prosecuting As son
obtains a bond from A, for the amount of the
forged note. If B sues on this bond, the Court
may set the bond aside.
Ex 2: A, a money-lender, advances Rs.100 to B,
an agriculturist, and by undue influence induces
B to execute a bond for Rs.200 with interest at 6
per cent per month. The Court may set aside,
ordering B to repay Rs.100 with such interest as
may seem to it just.
RELATIONSHIP WHICH RAISE

PRESUMPTION OF UNDUE
INFLUENCE
Parent and child
Guardian and ward
Trustee and beneficiary
Religious adviser and disciple
Doctor and patient
Solicitor and client
The presumption of undue influence applies
whenever the relationship between the parties is
such that one of them is , by reason of
confidence reposed in him by the other, able to
take unfair advantage over the other.
NO PRESUMPTION OF UNDUE
INFLUENCE IN THE
RELATIONSHIP
Landlord and tenant

Creditor and debtor
Husband and wife. (The wife should not
be pardanashin otherwise the
presumption will arise.)
In the above cases undue influence will
have to be proved if any.
BURDEN OF PROOF
When a contract is avoided on the ground of

undue influence, the liabilities of dominant
party and weaker party has to be proved.
The weaker party has to prove
(a) That the other party was in a position to
dominate the will
(b) That the other party actually used his influence
to obtain an unfair advantage
(c) That the transaction is unconscionable
(unreasonable)
Continued
In case of unconscionable transaction, the
dominant party has to prove that such
contract was not induced by undue
influence.
Note: A transaction is said to be
unconscionable if the dominant party
makes an exorbitant profit of the other s
distress.
Example of unconscionable
transaction
X was in great need of money. The market rate of
interest prevailing at that time was 15% to 24%.
A lender agreed to grant the loan at 30%
because of stringency in the money market. This
cannot be called as unconscionable transaction
because of an unusual high rate of interest.
However, if the lender agreed to grant the loan at
a rate which is so high (say 75% or 100%) then
the Court considers it unconscionable, and the
transaction will be called unconscionable
CONTRACTS WITH
PARDANASHIN WOMAN
A woman who observes complete seclusion ( i.e., who

does not come in contact with people other than her family
members) is called pardanashin woman.
Legal Presumption: A contract with a pardanashin woman
is presumed to have been induced by undue influence.
Burden of Proof: The other party who enters into a
contract with a pardanashin woman must prove (a) that
he made full disclosure of all the facts to her.
(b) that she understood the contracts and the implications
of the contract.
(c) that she was in receipt of competent independent
advice before entering into the contract.
Misrepresentation
A statement of fact which one party makes in the
course of negotiations with a view to inducing
the other party to enter in to a contract is known
as a representation.
It may be expressed by words spoken or written
or implied from the acts and conduct of the
parties.
A representation when wrongly made, either
innocently or intentionally, is a
misrepresentation.
MISREPRESENTATION & FRAUD
(I)
Misrepresentation may beAn innocent or unintentional

misrepresentation, or
(II) An intentional, deliberate or willful
misrepresentation with an intent to
deceive or defraud the other party.
The former is called MISREPRESENTATION
and the latter FRAUD
MISREPRESENTATION
Misrepresentation is a
misstatement of a material fact
made innocently with an honest
belief as to its truth or nondisclosure of a material fact,
without any intent to deceive
the other party.
Examples of
Misrepresentation
1. A while selling his mare to B, tells him

that the mare is thoroughly sound. A
genuinely believes the mare to be sound
although he has no sufficient ground for
the belief. Later on B finds the mare to be
unsound. The representation made by A
is a misrepresentation.
Examples of
Misrepresentation
2.A companys prospectus contained a

representation that it had statutory powers to run
its tramways by steam provided the consent of
a Government authority was obtained. The
directors issued a prospectus stating there in
that the permission for the use of steam power
would be granted. The permission was
refused .The company was then wound up.
Held, the directors were guilty of
misrepresentation and not of fraud. [Derry
vs.Peek(1889)]
Requirements of
MISREPRESENTATION
1.It must be
a representation of material fact. Mere
expression of opinion does not amount to
misrepresentation even if it turns out to be wrong.
2.It must be made before the conclusion of the contract
with a view to inducing the other party to enter in to
contract.
3.It must be made with the intention that it should be
acted upon by the person to whom it is addressed.
4.It must actually have been acted upon and must have
induced the contract.
5.It must be wrong but the person who made it
honestly believed it to be true.
Requirements of MISREPRESENTATION
6.It must be made without any intention to deceive the
other party.
7.It need not be made directly to the plaintiff. A wrong
statement of facts made to a third party with the
intention of communicating it to the plaintiff, also
amounts to misrepresentation.
E.g., A told his wife within the hearing of their daughter that
the bridegroom proposed for her was a young man. The
bridegroom, however, was a over sixty years. The daughter
gave her consent to marry him believing the statement by
her father. Held, the consent was vitiated by
misrepresentation and fraud.
[Babul vs.Singh(1968)Patiala High Court]
FRAUD
Fraud exists when it is shown that,
(1) a false representation has been made
(i) knowingly, or
(ii) with out belief in its truth, or
(iii) recklessly, not caring whether it is true or
false, and
(iv) the maker intended the other party to act
upon it.
(2) there is a concealment of material fact.
..FRAUD
The intention of the party

making fraudulent
misrepresentation must be to
deceive the other party to the
contract or to induce him to enter
in to a contract.
..FRAUD
According to Sec.17. fraud means and includes any of
the following acts committed by a party to a contract:
1.The suggestion that a fact is true when it is not true and the
person making the suggestion does not believe it to be
true;
2.The active concealment of a fact by a person
having knowledge or belief of the fact;
3.A promise made without any intention of performing it;
4.Any other act fitted to deceive;
5.Any such act or omission as the law specially declares to
be fraudulent.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF
FRAUD
1.There must be a representation and it must be
false:
E.g., The prospectus of a company did not refer to the
existence of a document disclosing liabilities. This
gave the impression that the company was prosperous.
If the existence of the document had been disclosed the
impression would have been different. Held, non
disclosure of information amounted to fraud and any
one who purchased shares on the faith of this
prospectus could avoid the contract.[Peek
vs.Gurney(1873)]
FRAUD
2.The representation must relate to a material fact

which exists now or existed in the past.
(i) A sells some spoons to B and makes the following
statements. The spoons are as good as that of X.
[This is a statement of opinion].
(ii) The spoons have as much silver in them as that of X
[This is a statement of fact]
(iii) The spoons are the best available in the market for the
price.
[This is a puffing statement].
FRAUD
3.The representation must have been
made before the conclusion of the contract
with the intention of inducing the other
party to act upon it.
4.The representation must have been
made with a knowledge of its falsity or
without belief in its truth or recklessly, not
caring whether it is true or false.
5.The other party mustFRAUD
have been induced to act upon
the representation or assertion.A mere falsehood is

not enough to give a right of action.
Eg., A bought shares in a company on the faith of a
prospectus which contained an untrue statement that one
B was a director of the company. A had never heard of B
and, therefore, the statement was immaterial from his point
of view .As claim for damages in this was dismissed
because the untrue statement had not induced A to buy the
shares.
[Smith vs.Chadwick(1884)]
FRAUD
6.The other party must have relied upon the
representation and must have been deceived.If
representation does not come to the notice of a
party, it cannot be said to have misled that party
because it does not lead that party at all.
7.The other party, acting on the representation
or assertion, must have subsequently suffered
some loss.
Contracts not necessarily voidable

-Exceptions.
When consent to an agreement is caused by coercion, fraud

or misrepresentation, the agreement is a contract voidable
at the option of the party whose consent was so caused. But
in the following cases, the contract is not voidable:
1.Where the consent of a party to a contract was caused by
misrepresentation or fraud and that party could discover the
truth by ordinary diligence.
E.g., A by misrepresentation, leads B erroneously to believe
that five hundred tonnes of indigo are made annually at his
factory. B examines the accounts of the factory,which show
that only four hundred tonnes of indigo have been made.
After this B buys the factory. The contract is not voidable on
account of As misrepresentation.
MISTAKE
Mistake is erroneous belief about something.
It may be a (1) Mistake of law, or (2) Mistake of fact.
(1)Mistake of law: It may be.
(a) Mistake of law of the country
(b) Mistake of law of foreign country
(2) Mistake of fact: Mistake of fact may be,
(a) Bilateral Mistake, or
(b) Unilateral Mistake.
MISTAKE OF LAW
Example of (1) Mistake of law of the country
A party cannot be allowed to get any relief on the ground
that it had done a particular act in ignorance of law.A
mistake of law is, therefore, no excuse, and the contract
cannot be avoided.
E.g., A and B enter in to contract on the erroneous belief
that a particular debt is barred by Indian Law of
Limitation. This contract is not voidable.
But, if a person enters in to a contract by making a
mistake of law through the inducement of another,
whether innocent or otherwise ,the contract may be
avoided.
MISTAKE OF LAW
(2) Mistake of law of a foreign country
Such a mistake is treated as

mistake of fact and the
agreement in such a case is
void (Sec.21).
.MISTAKE
Bilateral Mistake: Where both the parties to an
agreement are under a mistake as to a matter of fact
essential to the agreement, the agreement is void
[Sec.20].It may be Bilateral or Unilateral Mistake
Bilateral Mistake: It may relate to
(a)Subject mater,or (b) Possibility of performance
(a) Subject matter may relate to ..
(i)Existence (ii)Price (iii)Quantity (iv) Quality
(v) Identity or (vi) Title.
(b) Possibility of performance :It may relate to,
(i) Physical, or Legal impossibility.
Bilateral Mistake
The following two conditions have to be fulfilled.
1.The mistake must be mutual:
E.g., A agreed to purchase Bs motor car which was lying down in Bs
garage.Unknown to either party, the car and garage were
completely destroyed by fire a day earlier.The agreement is void.
2.The mistake must relate tom a matter of fact essential to the
agreement:
E.g.,A man and woman entered in to a separation agreement under
which a man agreed to pay a weekly allowance to the woman,
mistakenly believing themselves lawfually married.Held, the
agreement was void as there was mutual mistake on a point of fact
which was material to the existence of the agreement.
[Galloway vs.Galloway(19141)].
Bilateral Mistake
:
The various cases whish fall under Bilateral mistake are as follows.
1.Mistake as to the Subject matter:
(a)MISTAKE AS TO THE EXISTENCE OF THE SUBJECT MATTER.
E.g., A agrees to buy a horse from B a certain horse. It turns out that the
horse was dead at the time of the bargain, though the neither party was
aware of the fact. The agreement is void.
(b) MISTAKE AS TO THE IDENTITY OF THE SUBJECT MATTER:
E.g., W agreed to buy from R a cargo of cotton to arrive ex-peerless from
Bombay.There were two ships of that name sailing from Bombay.One
sailing in October and the other in December.W meant the former ship and
R, the latter.Held, there was a mutual or bilateral mistake and there was no
contract.[Rafles vs.Wichelhaus(1864)]
.Bilateral Mistake
1.BILATERAL MISTAKE:
(c) MISTAKE AS TO THE QUALITY OF THE SUBJECT MATER:

E.g., Table Napkins were sold at an auction by y description with the
crest of Charles 1 and the authentic property of that monarch. In
fact the napkins were Georgian. Held the agreement was void as
there was a mistake as to the quality of the subject matter.
[Nicholson &Venn vs.Smith Mariott(1947)]
(d) MISTAKE AS TO THE QUANTITY OF THE SUBJECT MATTER:
E.g., A silver bar was sold under a mistake as to its weight. There was
a difference in value between the weight as it was and as it was
supposed to be. Held, the agreement was void. [Cox
vs.Prentice(1815)]
.Bilateral Mistake
1. BILATERAL MISTAKE:
(e) MISTAKE AS TO THE TITLE OF THE SUBJECT MATTER:

E.g., A person took a lease of a fishery which, unknown to either party, already
belonged to him. Held, the lease was void.
[Cooper vs.Phibbs (1815)]
(f)MISTAKE AS TO THE PRICE OF THE SUBJECT MATTER.
E.g., C wrote to W offering to sell certain property for 1,250 pounds. He had
earlier declined an offer from W to buy the same property for 2000 pounds.
W Who knew that this offer of 1,250 pounds was a mistake for 2,250
pounds, immediately accepted the offer. Held, W knew perfectly well that
that the offer was made by mistake and hence the contract could not be
enforced. [Webster vs.Cecil(1861)]
.MISTAKE
Unilateral Mistake: Where only one of the parties is
under a mistake as to a matter of fact, the contract is
not voidable(Sec.22).
E.g., A offers to sell his house for Rs.44,000.By mistake
he makes an offer in writing for Rs..40,000.He cannot
plead mistake as a defense.
There are however, two exceptions.
Regarding the (i) identity of the person contracted with.
(ii) Nature of contract.
.MISTAKE
(I )Mistake at to the identity of the person contracted with:
E.g. ,If A intends to enter in to a contract with B, C cannot give himself
any right in respect of the contract by accepting the offer.
In such a case the contract is void.
(ii) Mistake as to the nature of the contract:
Where a person is made to enter in to a contract through the
inducement of another but through no fault.
E.g., M, an old man of poor sight, endorsed a bill of exchange thinking
that it was a guarantee. Held, there was no contract on the ground
that the mind of the signer did not accompany the signature [Foster
vs. Mackinson (1869)]
Legality of Object
An agreement is a contract if it is
made for a lawful consideration and
with a lawful object (Sec.10)
Every agreement of which the object
or consideration is unlawful is void.
Continued..
The consideration or object of an agreement is

unlawful if(a) It is forbidden by law; or
(b) If it is of such a nature that, if permitted it would
defeat the provisions of any law.
Ex: X borrowed Rs.1,00,000 from Y and agreed
not to raise any objection as to the limitation and
that Y may recover the amount even after the
expiry of limitation period. This agreement is void
as it defeats the provisions of the Law of Limitation
Act; or
Continued.
(c) It is fraudulent; or
(d) It involves or implies injury to the person or
property of another; or
(e)The Court regards it as immoral, or opposed
to public policy.
No action is allowed on an illegal agreement.
Void Agreements
A void agreement is one which is not enforceable by law.
[Sec.2(g)]
The following agreements are declared to be void.
1.An agreement made by incompetent persons( Sec.11).
2.Agreement made under mutual mistake of fact (Sec.20)
3.Agreements the consideration or object is unlawful (Sec.23)
4.Agreements the consideration or object is unlawful in part.(Sec.24)
5.Agreement made without consideration is void ( Sec.25)
6.Agreement in restraint of marriage (Sec.26)
7.Agreement in restraint of trade (Sec.27)
8.Agreement in restraint of legal proceedings (Sec.28)
9.Agreement the meaning of which is uncertain ( Sec.29)
10.Agreement by way of wager (Sec.30)

11.Agreement contingent on impossible events(Sec.36)
12.Agreement to do impossible acts.(Sec.56)
Wager or Wagering Agreement

[Sec.30]
A wager agreement is an agreement
between two persons under which money
or moneys worth is payable, by one
person to another on the happening or
non-happening of a future uncertain event.
Ex. X promises to pay rs.1,000 to Y if it
rains on a particular day, and Y promises
to pay rs.1,000 to X if it did not. Such
agreement is a wagering agreement.
Wager or Wagering Agreement

[Sec.30]
The essence of gambling and
wagering is that one party is to win
and the other to lose upon a future
event, which at the time of the
contract is of an uncertain nature,
that is to say, if the event turns out
one way, A will lose but if it turns out
the other way he will win.
[Thacker Vs. Hardy(1878)]
Essentials of a wagering Agreement
1.Promise to pay money or moneys worth

2.Uncertain event
3.Each party must stand to win or lose.
4.No control over the event
5.No other interest in the event
The following transactions however are, not

wagers
1. A crossword competition involving a good measure of skill
for its successful solution
2.Games of skill, e.g., picture puzzles or athletic
competitions
3.A subscription or contribution or an agreement to
subscribe or contribute toward any plate (a cup or other
prize for a race or other contest), prize or sum of money of
the value of Rs.500 or above to be awarded to the winner or
winners of a horse race (Exception to Sec.30)
4.Share market transactions in which delivery of stocks and
shares is intended to be given and taken.
5.A contract of insurance.
AGREEMENTS CONTINGENT ON
IMPOSSIBLE EVENTS
According to Section 36 of the Indian
Contract Act,1872 contingent agreements
to do or not to do anything, if an impossible
event happens are void whether the
impossibility of the event is known or not to
the parties to the agreement at the time
when it is made. Ex: A agrees to pay
Rs.1,000 if B marries C (a Hindu) who is
already married to D . This is a void
agreement.
AGREEMENTS TO DO
IMPOSSIBLE ACTS
According to Section 56 of the ICA 1872,
An agreement to do an impossible act is
void.
Ex: A undertakes to put life to the dead
wife of B. This agreement is void
RESTITUTION
Restitution means return or restoration of

benefit.
Ex 1: A , a singer contracts with B the
manager of a theatre to sing at his theatre
for two nights every week during the next
two months and B agrees to pay her rs.100
for each nights performance. On the sixth
night, A willfully absents herself from the
theatre and B in consequence rescinds the
contract, B must pay A for the five nights on
which she had sung.
Continued.
Ex 2: A contracts to sing for B on a
specified day and receives an advance of
Rs.1000 but is unable to sing due to
serious illness on that day. Since the
contract has become void. A must return
Rs.1,000 to B.
Contingent Contracts
Contingent contract is a contract to do
something, if some event, collateral to such
contract, does or does not happen.
Characteristics of a contingent contract.
1.Its performance depends upon the happening or
non happening in future of some event.
2.The event must be uncertain.
3.The uncertain future event must be collateral to
the contract.
Performance of Contract
The parties to a contract either perform or
offer to perform their respective promises.
By whom the contract must be
performed ?
(a) By promisor himself
(b) By agent
(c) By legal representative
(d) By Joint promisors
(e) By Third Party
Who can demand performance ?
(a) Promisee: It is only the promisee himself. In case of

his death, the legal
representative, who can
demand performance.
Ex: X promises Y to pay Rs.1000 to Z. It is only Y who
can demand performance and not Z.
(b) Joint Promisees: In case of joint promisees, any of
the joint promisees can demand
performance.
When all promisees die ,the legal representatives of
all the deceased persons can demand performance.
Ex: X promises Y and Z jointly to repay loan of Rs.1,000
on a specified day. Ys representative jointly with Z can
demand the
Continued
Performance from X on specified day. If Y and
Z die before that specified day, the
representatives of Y and Z jointly can demand
the performance from X on specified day.
(c) Third Party: A third party can also
demand the performance of the contract in
some exceptional cases like beneficiary in
case of trust, the person for whose benefit the
provision is made in family arrangements.
Continued.
(d) Legal representative: In case of death of
the promisee, his legal representative can
demand performance unless a contrary intention
appears from the contract or the contract is of a
personal nature.
Ex: X promises to marry Y on the specified day. Y
dies before the specified day. The legal
representatives of Y cannot demand
performance of the promise from X because the
contract is of personal nature.
Who must Perform

(a) Promisor: If it appears from the nature of the
case that it was the intention of the parties to any
contract that any promise contained in it should
be performed by the promisor himself, such
promise must be performed by the promisor.
Ex: X promises to marry Y. X must perform this
promise personally.
Ex: X promises to paint a picture for Y. X must
perform the promise personally,
Continued
(b) Promisors Agent: If it was not the intention of
the parties that the promise should be performed
by the promisor himself, such contracts can be
performed by the promisor himself or any
competent person employed by him.
Ex: A promises to pay B a sum of money. A may
perform this either by personally paying the money
to B, or by causing it to be paid to B by another,
and if A dies before the time appointed for
payment, his representatives must perform the
promise, or employ some proper person to do so.
Continued
(c) Legal Representatives: In case of death of
promisor, his legal representative can perform
the contract unless a contrary intention
appears or the contract is of personal nature.
Ex: X promises to marry Y. X dies. Xs legal
representatives cannot perfom this promise.
(d) Third Party
(e) Joint Promisors
D i s c h a r g e of
Contract
A contract is said to be discharged when the
obligations created by it come to an end.
The various modes of discharge of contract are as
follows:
1.Discharge by performance
2.Discharge by agreement or consent
3.Discharge by impossibility
4.Discharge by lapse of time
5.Discharge by operation of law
6.Discharge by breach of contract.
DISCHARGE OF
CONTRACT
1. Discharge by performance:
It takes place when the parties to a contract fulfill
their obligations arising under the contract within
the time and the manner prescribed. The
performance may be. (i) Actual Performance or
(ii) Attempted Performance [Tender]
2. Discharge by agreement or consent:
The contract rests on the agreement of the
parties. The parties may get discharged from the
obligations of performance of contract by
agreement or mutual consent.
Discharge.. of Contract
2.Discharge by agreement or consent: The discharge by consent may
be express or implied. Discharge by consent
(a) Novation : When a new contract is substituted for an existing one,
either between the same parties or between the one of the
parties and the third party.
(b) Rescission: When all or some of the terms of contract are cancelled.
(c) Alteration : When one or more terms of the contract is/are altered
by the mutual consent of the parties to a contract.
(d) Remission: Acceptance of a lesser fulfillment of the promise
made
(e) Waiver: Intentional relinquishment or giving up of a right by a
party entitled thereto under a contract.
(f) Merger:
When an inferior right accruing to a party under a
contract merges in to a superior right accruing to the
same party under a new contract.
Discharge of Contract
3.Discharge by impossibility:
Impossibility of performance may be(1)Initial impossibility or (2) Supervening impossibility.
(1)Initial impossibility:An agreement to do an impossible act
in itself is
void.
(2)Supervening impossibility:Impossibility which arises subsequent to the
formation of contract (which could be performed at the time when the contract
was entered in to) is called supervening impossibility.The cases covered by of
supervening impossibility include: (a) Destruction of the subject mater
(b) Non-Existence or non-occurrence of a
particular state of things
(c) Death or incapacity for personal service
(d) Change of law, & (e) Outbreak of war
The contract is discharged in these cases.
The following cases are not covered by supervening

impossibility:
(a) Difficulty of performance

(b) Commercial impossibility
(c) Failure of a third person on whose work the
promisor relied
(d) Strikes, lock outs and civil disturbances
(e) Failure of one of the objects
The contract is not- discharged in these cases.
4.Discharge by lapse of time:

If the contract is not performed within the period of
limitation and if no action is taken by the promisee in a
court, the contract is discharged.
5.Discharge by operation of law:
law
This includes discharge by,

(a) death
(b) merger
(c) insolvency
(d) unauthorized alteration of the terms of a written
agreement,
and
(e) rights and liabilities becoming vested in the same person.
6.Discharge by breach of contract:
If a party breaks his obligation which the contract
imposes, there takes place breach of contract.
Breach of contract may be,(a) Actual or(b) Anticipatory
breach.
(1)Actual breach of contract may occur,
(a) at the time when the performance is due, or
(b) during the performance of the contract.
(2)Anticipatory breach of contract occurs when a party
repudiates his liability or obligation under the contract
before the time for performance arrives.
Remedies for
Breach of Contract
In case of breach of contract, the injured party has one
or more of the following remedies:
1.RESCISSION:When there is breach of a contract by a
party , the injured party may sue to treat the contract as
rescinded. He is also absolved of all the obligations
under the contract.
2.DAMAGES:Damages are monetary compensation
awarded to the injured party by Court for the loss or
injury suffered by him.
The foundation for modern law of damages, both in India
and England, is to be found in the case of Hadley vs.
Baxandile.
2.Hadley vs.Baxandile(1854)
Xs mill was stopped by the breakdown of a shaft. He
delivered the shaft to Y, a common carrier, to be taken to a
manufacturer to copy it and make a new one. X did not make
known to Y that delay would result in loss of profits. By some
neglect on the part of Y the delivery of the shaft was delayed
in transit beyond a reasonable time (so that the mill was idle
for a longer period than otherwise would have been the case
had there been no breach of the contract of carriage).
Held, Y was not liable for loss of profits during the period of
delay as the circumstances communicated to Y did not show
that a delay in the delivery of the shaft would entail loss of
profits to the mill.
2.Damages may be of four types:

(1) Ordinary Damages: These are damages which
actually arise in the usual course of things from the
breach of a contract.
(2) Special Damages: Damages which may reasonably
be supposed to have been in the contemplation of both
the parties at the time when they made the contract as
the probable result of the breach of it, are known as
special damages and may be recovered.
..Damages may be of four types:

3.Vindictive or Exemplary Damages:These
damages are allowed in case of the breach of a
contract to marry or dishonor of a cheque by a
banker wrongfully.
4.Nominal Damages: Where the injured party has
not suffered any loss by reason of the breach of
a contract, the Court may award a very nominal
sum as damages.
3. QUANTUM MERUIT:
[As much as earned]
A right to sue on a quantum meruit (as much as
earned) arises where a contract, partly
performed by one party, has become discharged
by the breach of the contract by the other party.
This right is founded on the implied promise by the
other party arising from the acceptance of a
benefit by that party.
Liquidated Damages and penalty.

Liquidated damages represent a sum, fixed or
ascertained by the parties in the contract, which
is a fair and genuine pre estimate of the
probable loss that might ensue as a result of
breach.A penalty is a sum named in the
contract at the time of its formation, which is
disproportionate to the damage likely to accrue
as a result of breach the Courts in India allow
only reasonable compensation.
4.Specific Performance
4.Specific Performance :In certain

cases the Court may direct the party
in terms of the contract to actually
carry out the promise, exactly
according to the terms of the
contract.This is called specific
performance of the contract.
5.Injunction
5.Injunction: It is a mode of securing

the specific performance of the
negative terms of a contract.

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V BBM B BUSINESS LAW CLASS

1. A citizen may think of law

Law includes all those rules

Why should one know law

Definition of Law by Salmond

The object of law is order, and the

Need for the knowledge of law

The law now a days is a matter of great intricacy.

Sources of Business Law

The law of contract is regulated by Indian Contract Act, 1872

The law of contract is that branch of law which

OBJECT OF LAW OF CONTRACT

According to Sir William Anson,

The law of contract is intended to ensure

JUS IN REM &

Jus in rem means,

Section 2(h) of Indian Contract Act, 1872

So, a contract is an agreement made

An agreement is defined as,

When the person to whom the proposal is

Agreement and its types

All contracts are agreements, but all agreements

ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT: Sec 2(h) & sec(10)

Offer and Acceptance

ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT:

1.Offer and Acceptance:

ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT:

ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT:

ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT:

ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT:

5.Free and genuine consent:

There is absence of free consent if the agreement

ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT:

ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT:

7. Agreement not declared void:

ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT:

8. Certainty and possibility of performance:

There is nothing whatever to show what kind of oil was

ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT:

It is however in the interest of the parties that the

1.Voidable Contract [2(i)] 1.Express Contract [9] 1.Executed Contract

1.Classification according to Validity

Example of Voidable Contract: A promises

ii] Void Agreement: An agreement not

E.g., An agreement with a minor or a person of

iii] Void Contract: A contract which ceases

to be enforceable by law is a void contract.

E.g., A contract to import goods becomes void,

iv] Illegal Agreement: An illegal agreement

is one which is unlawful. Such an

E g :An agreement to import prohibited goods.

be enforced in a Court of law because of some

The contract may be carried out by the parties

2.Classification according to Formation

On the basis of Formation Contract can be

EXPRESS CONTRACT: If the terms and conditions of

contracts are expressly agreed upon (whether words

Contract is not a contract at all.

III. Classification according to Performance