Crystal Systems

Mineralogy
Minerals - Methods of Investigation

Rocks are made of minerals.
We need to know the minerals present
in a rock before we can understand the
history of a rock.
1) Physical Properties
Colour, hardness, cleavage, fracture,
relative density, etc.
Each mineral has its own characteristics.
2) Mophological Crystallography
External shape and form of a mineral.
3) Optical Crystallography
Phenomena of passage of light through
and the interaction with crystalline
material.
4) Mineral Chemistry
Chemical composition is fundamental to
many of the properties of minerals as is
the geometrical arrangement of the
constituent atoms or ions and the nature
of the electrical forces that bind them
together.
5) Special Techniques
XRD, XRF, Electron Microprobe etc.
Morphological
Crystallography
Symmetry
Morphological Crystallography
What is a crystal?
Definition of a crystal - a
homogeneous solid bounded by
naturally formed plane faces with a
regular atomic structure.
Perfect crystals are an exception from

the norm, as conditions of growth often
distort faces.
One of the most noticeable features of
crystals is their regular arrangement of
faces.
Sulphur
www.novagate.com/~ahines/rocks/sulph.htm
There is a strong tendency for the faces

of crystals to be arranged so that the
edges formed by a number of them are
parallel.
Such a set of faces constitutes a zone defined as a set of faces whose mutual
intersections are parallel.
The common direction of edge is that of
the zone axis of that particular zone.
www.gly.uga.edu/schroeder/ geol3010/zones.gif
Frequently similar faces (of the same

size and shape) occur in parallel pairs
on opposite sides of the crystal.
Many crystals are bounded entirely by
such pairs of faces and are said to show
a centre of symmetry (C).
Pinacoidal Class,
Symmetry content - i
Since in this class there is
only a center of symmetry,
pairs of faces are related
to each other through the
center. Such faces are
called pinacoids, thus this
is the pinacoidal class.
Among the common
minerals with pinacoidal
crystals are: microcline (Kfeldspar), plagioclase,
turquoise, and
wollastonite.
However a solid, such as a tetrahedron,

in which a face on one side is opposite a
point (or coign) on the other, does not
possess a centre of symmetry.
The Tetrahedron
A polyhedron bounded by
four equilateral triangles;
three meeting at each
vertex.
www.math.uiowa.edu/.../ tetrahedron-and-cube1.GIF
www.srcf.ucam.org/.../ entry/tetrahedron.html
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens211/forms_zones_habit.htm
Some more complex crystals have faces

occurring in parallel pairs whilst others
have no similar faces parallel to them.
These crystals have no centre of
symmetry, as every face must have a
similar face parallel to it.
Crystals that are bilaterally symmetrical

have a plane of symmetry (m).
A crystal showing a plane of symmetry
jaeger.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/.../ symmetry.html
A plane of symmetry
www.tulane.edu/.../ eens211/32crystalclass.htm
www.iucr.org/.../cteach/ pamphlets/2/node3.html
Highly regular crystals may be

bilaterally symmetrical about several
planes cutting them in different
directions and so have several planes
of symmetry.
Cube has 3 planes of symmetry
parallel to the faces of the cube.
Cube has 6 diagonal planes of
symmetry also.
3 planes of symmetry
parallel to the faces of a cube
math.nmsu.edu/.../ cuttingPH/cuttingPH.html
6 diagonal planes of symmetry

in a cube
A crystallographic plane of symmetry

must divide the crystal into 2 equal
portions and these 2 portions must be
so situated that they are mirror
images of each other with respect to
the plane.
Crystal symmetry about a line is

termed an axis of symmetry.
Rotate a cube about a

line normal to one of its
faces at its mid-point,
and it will turn into a
congruent position
every 90o, i.e. 4 times
during one revolution.
This normal is an axis
of four fold symmetry a tetrad axis.
One of the Tetrad Axes of a Cube
Cube has 3 tetrad axes, one

normal to each of the 3 pairs of
parallel faces.
Cube also has triad axes.
Cube also has diad axes.
Full symmetry of a cube
An axis of symmetry (or rotation axis)

is a line such that after rotation about
it through 360o/n the crystal assumes
a congruent position.
The value of n determines the degree
of the axis.
n = 1 Xtal rotated through 360o before

congruence achieved
Identity axis
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=6
180o
120o
90o
60o
Diad axis
Triad axis
Tetrad axis
Hexad axis
These are the only possible values.
1-fold Rotation Axis
Values above n = 6 not possible.

n = 5, a pentad axis is
not possible in crystallography.
Why ?
n=5
n=8
Pentagons with 5-fold symmetry axes

perpendicular to the page, leads to gaps in the pattern
Hexagons with 6-fold axes perpendicular

to the page, gives honeycomb close packing
Now write down the symmetry of a

hexagonal pencil
(with no sharpened point)..
centre of symmetry
7 planes
1 hexad axis
6 diad axes
or C, 1A6, 6A2, 7m
Here is the full crystallographic

symmetry of the cube again:
centre of symmetry
3 planes
6 diagonal planes
3 tetrad axes
4 triad axes
6 diad axes
or C, 3A4, 4A3, 6A2, 9m
This same group of symmetry is

present in many other (cubic) crystals
of quite different shapes - e.g.
octahedron, pentagonal dodecahedron.
members.aol.com/ Polycell/uniform.html
A rhombohedron shows less symmetry.
A rhombohedron shows less symmetry.

centre of symmetry
1 triad axis
3 diad axes
3 planes
or C, 1A3, 3A2, 3m
A ?... rhombohedron shows

less symmetry.
www.bojistones.com/.../ calcite-rhomb-orange.jpg
www.tellmewhereonearth.com/ Images%205/calcite...
A calcite rhombohedron shows

less symmetry.
www.bojistones.com/.../ calcite-rhomb-orange.jpg
www.tellmewhereonearth.com/ Images%205/calcite...
A more subtle symmetry element is

present when a rotation is followed by
an inversion across a centre, and brings
one to a new position, the process being
repeated until one has returned to the
starting point.
This is called an axis of rotary inversion
or an inversion axis.
Inversion axis
www.iucr.org/.../cteach/ pamphlets/2/node3.html
Inversion axes can be:

1 fold
bar one
2 fold (inversion diad)
3 fold (inversion triad)
4 fold (inversion tetrad)
6 fold (inversion hexad)
=1C
bar two = m
bar three
bar four
bar six
Rotation and Inversion
To recap, there are a series of geometric

operations by which homogeneous
patterns can be generated in crystals:
Translation
Rotation
Inversion
Translation and Inversion together
An operation is defined as any motion

that brings the original motif (face) into
coincidence with the same motif (face)
elsewhere in the pattern.
The elements of symmetry are thus:

(i) Rotation axis
diad, triad, tetrad, hexad (1,2,3,4,6)
(ii) Plane of symmetry
(mirror plane, m)
(iii) Centre of symmetry
(inversion centre, C or i )
(iv) Inversion axis
(bar1,bar2,bar3,bar4,bar6)
Center
of
Symmetry
Mirror
Plane
Rotation
axis
Rotoinversion
axis
We can also combine rotation axes,

e.g. 622, 422, 222.
This is Hermann-Mauguin Notation.
We can combine rotation axes and
mirror planes, e.g. 6/m 2/m 2/m,
4/m 2/m 2/m, 4mm.
(4/m = four over m = combination of a four
fold symmetry axis and a mirror plane
perpendicular to it.)
But the number of possible symmetry

combinations is not unlimited.
The total number of non-identical
symmetry elements and combinations
of symmetry elements is only 32.
Hence there are 32 possible

elements and combinations of
elements and they are identical to
the 32 possible crystal classes to
which crystals can be assigned on
the basis of their morphology or
internal atomic arrangement.
32 possible symmetry elements
The Seven Crystal Systems

Crystals are grouped according to their
symmetry into 7 major divisions
the 7 crystal systems.
32 Crystal Classes
The 7 systems are defined in terms

of axes of symmetry:
Triclinic
No axes of symmetry
Monoclinic 1 Diad axis
Orthorhombic 3 Diad axes
Tetragonal 1 Tetrad axis
Cubic
4 Triad axes (Isometric)
Trigonal
1 Triad axis
Hexagonal 1 Hexad axis
Each of these systems is subdivided

into a number of symmetry groups, the
Crystal Classes, all possessing
common symmetry characteristics of
the system.
In total there are 32 crystal classes.
In each class the most symmetrical is
called holosymmetric.
Now look at the mineral Forsterite

(Mg2SiO4, Mg-Olivine)
3 axes of 2 fold symmetry (Diads, n =
2)
2 horizontal and 1 vertical
3 mirror planes
1 symmetry centre
Axis of symmetry
lies at the mutual intersection of
planes
or C, 3A2, 3m (orthorhombic)
Orthorhombic: rhombic-dipyramidal class

Symmetry content 3A2, 3m, i
Olivine
www.musee.ensmp.fr/ gm/836.html
www.gc.maricopa.edu/. ../fosterite.htm
Now look at the mineral Forsterite

(Mg2SiO4, Mg-Olivine)
Triclinic: Symmetry content - i

Microcline (K-Feldspar)
www.visualsunlimited.com/. ../vu225/vu22589.html
www.nmnh.si.edu/minsci/ images/gallery/35.htm
www.arizonaminerals.com/ specimens_ad-ap.shtml
Monoclinic:
Symmetry content mirror plane(s)
or single diad axis
Augite (Clinopyroxene)
members.aol.com/
homepage1.nifty.com/ albedo-kobayashi/augite-1.htm
vbetz/gomera/Gomera.html
Monoclinic:
Symmetry content mirror plane(s)
or single diad axis
Gypsum
www.greatsouth.net/ p-M718.html
www.soes.soton.ac.uk/.../ M18-Gypsum-v-s.htm
Orthorhombic:
rhombicdipyramidal class
Symmetry 3A2, 3m, i
Topaz
www.fmm.ru/kochubey/ topaz/31301c3.htm
www.palagems.com/ topaz_buyers_guide.htm
Tetragonal: tetragonal-dipyramid class 4/m

Symmetry content 1A4, 1m, i
Scheelite
Scapolite
www.worldofrockhounds.com/ scheelite.html
www.edelweissminerals.com/ Pages/Mineral%20gal...
Tetragonal: ditetragonal-dipyramid class

4/m2/m2/m
Symmetry content 1A4, 4A2,5m, i
Zircon
www.littlegemsrockshop.co.uk/ acatalog/Crystal...
Cassiterite
www.minerva.unito.it/. ../stagno2.htm
QUIZ
Minerals:
(a) normally form by biological
activity
(b) have a fixed chemical
composition
(c) have a variable but
characteristic chemical
composition
(d) always contain oxygen in the
Minerals:
(a) normally form by biological
activity
(b) have a fixed chemical
composition
(c) have a variable but
characteristic chemical
composition
(d) always contain oxygen in
the chemical formula
A centre of symmetry is present in:

(a) all crystals
(b) all crystals except those of the
cubic system
(c) all crystals except those of the
tetragonal system
(d) crystals if features on each side
of the crystal are repeated with
exact equivalence on the opposite
side
A centre of symmetry is present in:

(a) all crystals
(b) all crystals except those of the
cubic system
(c) all crystals except those of the
tetragonal system
(d) crystals if features on each side
of the crystal are repeated with
exact equivalence on the opposite
side
The diagnostic symmetry of the

cubic system is:
(a) 4 axes of four-fold symmetry
(b) 4 axes of three-fold symmetry
(c) 4 axes of two-fold symmetry
(d) 1 axis of four-fold symmetry
The diagnostic symmetry of the

cubic system is:
(a) 4 axes of four-fold symmetry
(b) 4 axes of three-fold symmetry
(c) 4 axes of two-fold symmetry
(d) 1 axis of four-fold symmetry
A mineral which commonly

occurs as rhombic dodecahedra
is:
(a) topaz
(b) olivine
(c) garnet
(d) tourmaline
A mineral which commonly

occurs as rhombic
dodecahedra is:
(a) topaz
(b) olivine
(c) garnet
(d) tourmaline
E-Book
Reading:
Hefferan
and OBrien
Chapter 4 Crystallography
Reading:
W. D. Nesse
Chapter 2:
Crystallography
Reading:
Hamblin and
Christiansen
Chapter 3
Reading:
Battey and Pring
Reading:
H. H. Read
Rutleys
Elements of
Mineralogy

Crystal Systems

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Mineralogy

Minerals - Methods of Investigation

Perfect crystals are an exception from

There is a strong tendency for the faces

Frequently similar faces (of the same

However a solid, such as a tetrahedron,

Some more complex crystals have faces

Crystals that are bilaterally symmetrical

A crystal showing a plane of symmetry

Highly regular crystals may be

6 diagonal planes of symmetry

A crystallographic plane of symmetry

Crystal symmetry about a line is

Rotate a cube about a

One of the Tetrad Axes of a Cube

Cube has 3 tetrad axes, one

Cube also has triad axes.

Cube also has diad axes.

Full symmetry of a cube

An axis of symmetry (or rotation axis)

n = 1 Xtal rotated through 360o before

These are the only possible values.

1-fold Rotation Axis

2-fold Rotation Axis

3-fold Rotation Axis

4-fold Rotation Axis

6-fold Rotation Axis

Values above n = 6 not possible.

Pentagons with 5-fold symmetry axes

Hexagons with 6-fold axes perpendicular

Now write down the symmetry of a

Here is the full crystallographic

This same group of symmetry is

A rhombohedron shows less symmetry.

A rhombohedron shows less symmetry.

A ?... rhombohedron shows

A calcite rhombohedron shows

A more subtle symmetry element is

Inversion axes can be:

Rotation and Inversion

To recap, there are a series of geometric

An operation is defined as any motion

The elements of symmetry are thus:

We can also combine rotation axes,

But the number of possible symmetry

Hence there are 32 possible

32 possible symmetry elements

The Seven Crystal Systems

The 7 systems are defined in terms

Each of these systems is subdivided

Now look at the mineral Forsterite

Orthorhombic: rhombic-dipyramidal class

Now look at the mineral Forsterite

Triclinic: Symmetry content - i

Tetragonal: tetragonal-dipyramid class 4/m

Tetragonal: ditetragonal-dipyramid class

A centre of symmetry is present in:

A centre of symmetry is present in:

The diagnostic symmetry of the