12/15/15

Philosophy of Engineering
Design

International College of Business and

Technology

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda

Mahagamage

12/15/15

Engineering MaterialsClassification

Ductile,
Malleable
Definition
A material is said to be ductile if
it is capable of withstanding large
strains under sustainable load
before fracture occurs.
These
large
strains
are
accompanied by a visible change
in cross sectional dimensions and
therefore
give
warning
of
impending failure
Ex: mild steel, aluminium, copper,
polymer

International College of Business and

Technology

Elastic
Plastic
Brittle
Isotropic
Definition
Anisotropic Brittleness denotes relatively
little or no elongation or increase
Orthotropic in length at fracture. The strain
normally being below 5%. A
material that exhibits brittleness
is called a brittle materials.
Brittle materials therefore may
fail suddenly without visible
warning.
Ex: concrete, cast iron, glass,
timber, ceramic

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Properties of Engineering
Materials

Physical
Those derived from the
properties of matter or
attributed to the physical
structure
- density
- Void content

Texture
Color
Shape
Permeability

Stre
ss

Mechanical
Properties which relate to
the behaviour of the
material when subjected
to
acting
loads.
Mechanical properties are
usually expressed in terms
of quantities that are
primarily
function
of
stress & strain.

Stra Strength Stiffness Elasticit Plasticit Ductility Brittlene

in
y
y
ss

International College of Business and

Technology

Chemical
Those pertaining to
the composition and
potential reaction of
a material
- Acidity

- Alkalinity
- Resistance to
corrosion

Hardnes
s

Enduran
ce

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Hookes Law
(1678)

(F)

(e
)

Cross section area of the steel wire = A

Original length of the wire
= l0

International College of Business and

Technology

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Stress ()
Intensity of the internally distributed forces that resist a change in
the form of the body. It is a measurement of density of forces,
defined as force per unit area of cross section.
Unit- kN/m2 (Pa), N/mm2 (MPa)
= P/A

Strain ()
Proportional deformation produced in a material under the
influence of stress
Numerical Ratio : Extended or shortened length/Original Length
= e/l0

Modulus of Elasticity (E)

The ratio of stress to strain in the linear region is known as
modulus of elasticity.
E = /
International College of Business and
Technology

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Stress-Strain Curve
0 to a - Linear, obeying Hooks Law
a
- Limit of proportionality
b
- Elastic Limit (maximum stress that can be
applied to a material without producing a
permanent plastic deformation )
c
- Upper yield point
d
- Lower Yield point
d to f - strain increases at a roughly constant value
of stress
f to g - Increase in stress accompanied by a large
increase in
strain
g
- Ultimate stress

International College of Business and

Technology

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Problems
1.A steel bar of rectangular cross section, 30mm by 20mm carries
an axial load of 40kN. Estimate the average tensile stress over a
normal cross section of the bar.
2.A steel bolt, 25mm in diameter, carries a tensile load of 40kN.
Estimate the average tensile stress at the shank and at the
screwed section, where the diameter at the root of the thread is
21mm.

3.A cylindrical block of 300mm long has a circular cross section,

100mm in diameter. It carries a total compression load of 100kN
and under this load it contracts by 0.2mm. Estimate the average
compressive stress over a normal cross section and the
compressive strain.
International College of Business and
Technology

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

4. A tensile test is carried out on a bar of mild steel of diameter

20mm. The bar yields under a load of 80kN. It reaches a
maximum load of 150kN and breaks finally at a load of 70kN.
Estimate
i). The tensile stress at the yield point
ii). The ultimate tensile stress
iii). The average stress at the breaking point, if the diameter
of the
fracture neck is 10mm
5. A circular metal rod of diameter 10mm is loaded in tension.
When the tensile load is 5kN, the extension of a 250mm
length is measured accurately and found to be 0.227mm .
Estimate the modulus of elasticity of the metal.
6. A mild steel column is hollow and circular in cross section with
an external diameter of 350mm and an internal diameter of
300mm. It carries a compressive axial load of 2000kN.
Determine the direct stress in the column and also the
shortening of the column if its initial height is 5m. Take E=
205kN/mm2
International College of Business and
Technology

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Relationship of stress and strain for

various materials

(a)- Brittle
(b)- Linear elastic with distinct proportional limit (ex-: low carbon
steel or mild steel)
(c) - Linear elastic with an indistinct proportional limit (ex-:
aluminium)
(d) - None linear (ex-: concrete)

International College of Business and

Technology

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Idealized short term stress-strain curve

for designs
1. Normal weight concrete

Important properties to be known for basic designs

Variesare,
with the
grade
a). Characteristic compressive strength (fckconcrete
)
b). Modulus of elasticity (Ecm)
c). Tensile strength (fctk)
International College of Business and
Technology

- about one tenth of fck

10

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

2. Reinforcement Steel

Important properties to be known for basic designs are,

a). Characteristic yield strength(fyk)
= 400 - 600 N/mm2
b). Modulus of elasticity (Es) = 200 kN/mm2

International College of Business and

Technology

11

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

3. Structural Steel
Stress-Strain curve similar to item (2) above

Important properties to be known for basic designs are,

a). Nominal value of yield strength (f y)- Varies with the steel
grade and the thickness
b). Modulus of elasticity (E)

= 210 kN/mm2

c). Poissons ratio ()

= 0.30

d). Shear Modulus (G)

= E/[2(1+)]

e). Coefficient of linear thermal expansion ()

= 12 x 10-6/0C

International College of Business and

Technology

12

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda

Mahagamage

12/15/15

4. Timber

International College of Business and

Technology

13

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda

Mahagamage

12/15/15

Basic Properties of Some Materials

International College of Business and

Technology

14

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda

Mahagamage

12/15/15

International College of Business and

Technology

15

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda

Mahagamage

12/15/15

International College of Business and

Technology

16

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda

Mahagamage

12/15/15

STRUCTURAL THEORY
Classification based on the nature of internal forces
1. Axial force member
A member that is subjected either to axial tensile or axial compressive
force is referred to as an axial force member. Ex: a cable and truss
member
2. Bending and shear resisting member
Members are subjected predominantly to bending or flexural actions.
Ex: a member subjected to loads transverse to its length.
3. Members subjected to torsion
Members are subjected predominantly to torsion or twisting actions. Ex
: a shaft transmitting motion from one shaft to other.
4. Members subjected to a combined action
Members are subjected to any combination of axial force, bending
moment, shear force and torsion

International College of Business and

Technology

17

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda

Mahagamage

12/15/15

Basic rigid elements

1. Beams and Columns
Beams are generally horizontal, which carry loads applied transversely
to their lengths and transfer them to the supporting vertical columns or
other supports. The beams bend under transverse loads and are said to
carry loads by bending. The elements carrying axial compressive forces
termed struts, when vertical they are termed columns.
2. Frames
A framed object or structure is made by assembling beam and column
elements with rigid joints.
3. Trusses
The truss is composed of short and straight discrete elements
arranged in to triangulated patterns. The truss is non-rigid, but it
maintains its shape as a result of the exact way the individual line
elements are positioned relative to one another.
4. Arches
An arch is a curved line-forming structural member spanning between
two points and carry the loads to the supports while being subjected
predominantly to axial compression.
5. Walls and Plates
These are rigid surface elements. A load-bearing wall can typically
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda
18
laterally acting
loads along its length.
Mahagamage

International College of Business and

carry both vertically and
Technology

12/15/15

Internal Forces
1. Tension force
Tension force tend to pull an element apart. The strength of a tension
member is generally independent of its length and tension stresses are
uniformly distributed across the cross section of the member.
2. Compression forces
Compression forces tend to crush or buckle the element. Short
members tend to crush and have higher strength compared to a tension
member. The load carrying capacity of a long member, however,
decreases with the increase in the length. The long compression members
may become unstable and may suddenly snap out from beneath the load
at certain critical load levels. This phenomenon is called buckling.
Because of this buckling phenomenon, long compression members are
not capable of carrying vey high loads.
3. Bending force
Bending force is a force state associate with bending of a member. The
bending action causes fibres on one face of the member to elongate, and
hence are in tension, and fibres on the opposite face to compress.
4. Shearing force
Shearing force is a force state associated with the action of opposing
forces that tend to cause one part of the member to slide with respect to
the College
adjacent
part. and
International
of Business
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda
19
Technology

Mahagamage

12/15/15

5. Torsion
Torsion is a twisting action. Both tension and compression stresses are
normally developed in the member subjected to torsion.
6. Bearing stresses
Bearing stresses exist at the interface between two members when
forces are transferred from one member to another. They act
perpendicular to contact surfaces. The bearing stresses are also
developed at the ends of beams where they rest on the walls.
Idealization of Structures for Analysis
The primary aim of the analysis is to determine the reactions, internal
forces and deformation at any point of the given body caused by applied
loads and forces. To achieve this objective, it becomes necessary to
idealize a body in a simplified form emendable to analysis procedure. The
members are normally represented by their centroidal axis.

International College of Business and

Technology

20

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda

Mahagamage

12/15/15

Support Conditions
Pinned Connection
In this connection joint allows attached member to rotate freely but does
not allow translation in any direction. Consequently, the joint cannot
provide moment resistance but can provide force resistance in any
direction.
Roller Connection
In addition to rotation, this connection also allows attached member to
translate freely parallel to the surface of the support, i.e. does not provide
any force resistance parallel to the surface of the support. However, the
joint resists translations in the direction perpendicular to the surface of
the support.
Fixed Connection
This connection completely restrains rotations and translations of the
attached members in any direction. Consequently, the joint can provide
moment and force resistances in any direction.
Important-: For an object to be stable in equilibrium, the supports must be
capable of providing specific minimum number of force restraints. Ex: for
a simple beam subjected to the vertical and horizontal forces, the support
must provide three force restraints for its equilibrium corresponding to
three conditions of equilibrium namely,
Fx = 0, Fy = 0, Mz = 0

International College of Business and

Technology

21

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

International College of Business and

Technology

22

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Equilibrium and Compatibility

Equilibrium and compatibility are used when trying to find the unknown
forces in a structure (beam, frame or truss). Before equilibrium or
compatibility can be used on a structure the determinacy of the structure
must be found. If the structure to be analysed is determined the unknown
forces can be found using only the equilibrium equation for either a 2-D or
3-D body. If the structure is found to be indeterminate then compatibility
condition must be used in addition to the equilibrium conditions.
Conditions of equilibrium
A structure in general is subjected to a set of forces which include
external or applied forces, internal forces or reactions that are developed
within the body at connection points and gravity forces caused by the
mass of the elements. The structure must be in the state of static
equilibrium with respect to these forces.
i) Translational equilibrium
ii) Rotational equilibrium

Fx=0, Fy=0, Fz=0

Mx=0, My=0, Mz=0

Compatibility
Compatibility is used when solving indeterminate members because the
equation of equilibrium do not allow to solve for all of the unknowns within
a system. Compatibility is a method used to provide extra equation when
trying to find the unknown in an indeterminate member. This is done by
relating the geometry of the deformed member with the unknown forces
International
of Business
Prepared
Duminda
Mahagamage
in theCollege
structure.
Thisand
method allows one
moreby:
of Eng.
the Chamil
unknown
forces
to
23 or
Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,
be shown as a factor of another unknown force result in a removal of one

12/15/15

Analysis of Structures
Analytical Methods
There are three approaches to the analysis
1. Mechanic of Materials (Strength of materials)
2. Elastic theory (Special case of the more general field of
continuum mechanics)
3. Finite element
Mechanic of Material Approach
Assumptions
a) The materials in question are elastic, that stress is related
linearly to strain
b) Material (but not the structure) behaves identically regardless
of direction of
the applied load.
c) All deformations are small.
d) Beams are long relative to their depth.
International College of Business and
Technology

24

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda

Mahagamage

12/15/15

Statically determinate and indeterminate structures

If for the stable structure it is possible to find the internal forces
in all the members constituting the structure and supporting reactions at
all the supports provided from statical equations of equilibrium only, the
structure is said to be statically determinate.
System for which the principles of statical equilibrium are
insufficient to determine support reactions and/or internal force
distributions, i.e. there are greater number of unknowns than the number
of equations of statical equilibrium, are known as statically indeterminate
or hyperstatic systems.
Structural systems may be
1. Externally indeterminate but internally determinate
2. Externally determinate but internally indeterminate
3. Externally and internally indeterminate
4. Externally and internally determinate
** A system which is externally and internally determinate is said to be
determinate system.

International College of Business and

Technology

2
5

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Statical Determinacy in frames

Let: m= total number of members in a truss
j= number of connections
Minimum number of members required for the geometric or configuration
stability
m = 2j-3
If m< 2j-3 structure is unstable
m> 2j-3 structure with redundant members
** The expression serves as an indicator whether or not the internal
forces in a structure can be calculated by the equations of statics.
Since all the j joints of the structure are in equilibrium and there are two
equilibrium equations involving the summation of forces in X- and Ydirections, namely Fx=0 and Fy=0 at each joint, 2j equations of static
equilibrium are available for the entire structure to compute the support
reactions and internal forces in all the members.
Let: m= unknown member forces
r= unknown support reactions
For the adequacy of the number of the available equilibrium equations to
compute the support reactions and internal forces in all the members,
2j=(m+r) or m=2j-r

International College of Business and

Technology

- statically determinate
2
6

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

If 2j < m+r, there are more unknowns than the number of equilibrium
equations, the structure is statically indeterminate. The degree of
indeterminacy n=(m+r)-2j
If 2j > m+r, there are more equilibrium equations available than the
number of unknowns, such a structure is a mechanism and always
unstable. The structure does not have unique solution. Existence of more
than one solution indicates instability
Ex:1 Determine whether the trusses shown in following figures are stable.
If stable, then find whether they are statically determinate or
indeterminate.

International College of Business and

Technology

2
7

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Sign Convention
Use normal sign convention adopted for a 3-dimensional righthanded system of Cartesian or rectangular coordinate axes OX, OY and
OZ with origin O on the extreme left of the structure. The forces
measured from the origin towards positive directions of axes are always
positive. Rotational moments expressed in vector form pointing towards
positive directions of the axes are positive. Thus, moments that tend to
produce counterclockwise rotations are considered positive and those
tend to produce clockwise rotations are considered negative.
Free - Body Diagrams
For static analysis of bodies subjected to external loads,
analytical diagrams that illustrate the force systems acting on the objects
are called equilibrium or free-body diagrams. Using equilibrium concepts,
the numerical values of reactions that occur at supports and hence
internal forces, i.e. axial forces, shear forces and bending moments can
be determined. The major application of equilibrium analysis is in the
evaluation of reactions and internal forces by representing an object by a
series of free body diagrams.

International College of Business and

Technology

2
8

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

International College of Business and

Technology

2
9

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Shear Force and Bending Moment

Relationships among loading, shear force, and bending
moment
V

V+V

A small element of the beam shown in figure above (left) is taken at a

distance x from end 1. The forces acting on the element are shown in
figure above (right).
Resolving forces vertically,
V = (V+V)+wx

and V/x = -w

Limiting condition
dV/dx = -w
indicates that the slope of the shear force
diagram, at any section, equals the intensity of loading at that section.
International College of Business and
Technology

3
0

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Alternatively, since
dV = -wdx
dV = -wdx, and
V2-V1 = x1x2 -wdx where,
V1= Shear force in the beam at x=x1, V2 = shear force in the beam at x=x2 and the change in
shear force between the two sections equals the area of the load intensity diagram between
the two sections.
Taking moments about the lower right corner of the element gives the expression
M = (M+M)- Vx + w (x )2/2
Neglecting the small value (x )2 ,
M/x = V
The limiting condition is
dM/dx = V
indicates that the slope of the bending moment diagram at any
section equals the shear force at that section.

International College of Business and

Technology

3
1

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Alternatively, since
dM = Vdx
dM = Vdx, and
M2-M1 = x1x2 Vdx where,
M1= Bending moment in the beam at x=x1, M2 = Bending moment in the beam at x=x2 and
the change in bending moment between the two sections equals the area of the shear force
diagram between the two sections.

International College of Business and

Technology

32

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Analysis of statically determinate structures by Virtual Work and Energy

Theorem
These methods are perfectly adequate for the comparatively simple problems to which they
have been applied. However, other more powerful methods of analysis are required for more
complex structures which may possess a high degree of statical indeterminacy. These
methods will, in addition, be capable of providing rapid solutions for some statically
determinate problems, particularly those involving the calculation of displacements.
The methods fall into two categories and are based on two important concepts; the first, the
principle of virtual work, is the most fundamental and powerful tool available for the
analysis of statically indeterminate structures and has the advantage of being able to deal
with conditions other than those in the elastic range, while the second, based on strain
energy, can provide approximate solutions of complex problems for which exact solutions
may not exist. The two methods are, in fact, equivalent in some cases since, although the
governing equations differ, the equations themselves are identical.
Work
Before we consider the principle of virtual work in detail, it is important to clarify exactly
what is meant by work. The basic definition of work in elementary mechanics is that work is
done when a force moves its point of application.

International College of Business and

Technology

33

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

For case (a),

WF = F(cos) or WF = (F cos)
For case (b),
Wc = F(a/2) + F(a/2) = Fa
For case (c),
WM = M

International College of Business and

Technology

34

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Note-: The force, F, and moment, M are in position before the displacements take place and
are not the cause of them. Also in Case (a), the component of parallel to the direction of F
is in the same direction as F; if it had been in the opposite direction the work done would
have been negative. The same argument applies to the work done by the moment, M, where
we see in Case (3) that the rotation, , is in the same senses as M. Note also that if the
displacement, , had been perpendicular to the force, F, no work would have been done by F.
Finally it should be remembered that work is a scalar quantity since it is not associated with
direction. Thus the work done by a series of forces is the algebaic sum of the work done by
each force.
Principle of Virtual Work

In figure above a particle, A, is acted upon by a number of concurrent forces, F 1, F2, ,Fk,
.,Fr; the resultant of these forces is R. Suppose that the particle is given a small arbitrary
displacement, v, to A in some specified direction; v is an imaginary or virtual displacement
and is sufficiently small so that the directions of F1, F2, etc., are unchanged. Let R be the
angle that the resultant, R, of the forces makes with the direction of v and 1, 2,, k,..,
r the angles that F1, F2,,Fk,, Fr make with the direction of v, respectively.

International College of Business and

Technology

35

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Then the total virtual work, WF, done by the forces F as the particle moves through the
virtual displacement, v , is given by
WF = F1 v cos1 + F2 v cos2 + + Fk v cosk ++ Frv cosr
Thus

If the particle, A, is in equilibrium under the action of the forces, F1, F2,., Fk,, Fr, the
resultant, R of the force is zero. It follows from the above equation that the virtual work done
by the forces, F, during the virtual displacement, v , is zero.
It can be stated the principle of virtual work for a particle
If a particle is in equilibrium under the action of a number of forces the total work done
by the forces for a small arbitrary displacement of the particle is zero.

International College of Business and

Technology

36

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

It is possible for the total work done by the forces to be zero even though the particle is not
in equilibrium if the virtual displacement is taken to be in a direction perpendicular to their
resultant, R. We cannot, therefore, state the converse of the above principle unless we specify
that the total work done must be zero for any arbitrary displacement.
Thus;
A particle in equilibrium under the action of a system of forces if the total work done by
the forces is zero for ant virtual displacement of the particle.
Note-: The v is a purely imaginary displacement and is not related in anyway to the possible
displacement of the particle under the action of the forces F. v has been introduced purely
as a device for setting up the work-equilibrium relationship. The forces, F, therefore remain
unchanged in magnitude and direction during this imaginary displacement; this would not
be the case if the displacement were real.

Principle of Virtual work for a Rigid Body

International College of Business and

Technology

37

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Consider the rigid body shown in figure above, which is acted upon by a system of external
forces, F1, F2,., Fk,, Fr. These external forces will induce internal forces in the body,
which may be regarded as comprising an infinite number of particles; on adjacent particles,
such as A1 and A2, these internal forces will be equal and opposite, in other words selfequilibrating. Suppose now that the rigid body is given a small, imaginary, that is virtual
displacement, v (or a rotation or a combination of both), in some specified direction. The
external and internal forces then do virtual work and the total virtual work done , W t, is the
sum of the virtual work, We, done by the external forces and the virtual work, Wi, done by
the internal forces.
Wt = We + Wi
Since the body is rigid, all the particles in the body move through the same displacement, v,
so that the virtual work done on all the particles is numerically the same. However, for a pair
of adjacent particles, such as A1 and A2 in above figure, the self equilibrating forces are in
opposite directions, which means that the work done on A1 is opposite in sign to the work
done on A2. Thus the sum of the virtual work done on A1 and A2 is zero. The argument can
be extended to the infinite number of pairs of particles in the body from which we conclude
that the internal virtual work produced by a virtual displacement in a rigid body is zero.
Wt = We
Since the body is rigid and the internal virtual work is therefore zero, we may regard the
body as a large particle. It follows that if the body is in equilibrium under the action of set of
forces, F1, F2,., Fk,, Fr , the total virtual work done by the external forces during an
arbitrary virtual displacement of the body is zero.

International College of Business and

Technology

38

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

Virtual work in a deformable body

12/15/15

In structural analysis we are not generally concerned with forces acting on a rigid body.
Structures and structural members deform under load, which means that if we assign a virtual
displacement to a particular point in a structure, not all points in the structure will suffer the
same virtual displacement as would be the case if the structure were rigid. This means that
the virtual work produced by the internal forces is not zero as it is in the rigid body case,
since the virtual work produced by the self-equilibrating forces on adjacent particles does not
cancel out. The total virtual work produced by applying a virtual displacement to a
deformable body acted upon by a system of external forces is
Wt = We + Wi
If the body is in equilibrium under the action of the external force system then every particle
in the body is also in equilibrium. Therefore, from the principle of virtual work, the virtual
work done by the forces acting on the particle is zero irrespective of whether the forces are
external or internal. It follows that, since the virtual work is zero for all particles in the body,
it is zero for the complete and
We + Wi = 0
Note that in the above argument only the conditions of equilibrium and the concept of work
are employed. Thus the above equation does not require the deformable body to be linearly
elastic (i.e.it need not obey Hookes law) so that the principle of virtual work may be applied
to any body or structure that is rigid, elastic or plastic. The principle does require that
displacements, whether real or imaginary, must be small, so that we may assume that external
and internal forces are unchanged in magnitude and direction during the displacements.
International College of Business and
Technology

39

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

In addition the virtual displacements must be compatible with the geometry of the structure
12/15/15
and the constraints that are applied, such as those at a support .
Problems
Calculate the support reactions in the simply supported beam shown in figures below.
1.

3.

2.

4.

International College of Business and

Technology

40

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Loads acting on structures

Dead Loads (DL) -Permanent actions
The loads which constant in magnitude and fixed in location through out
the lifetime of the structure. Major part is the weight of structure itself
and all the other permanent construction including services of a
permanent nature.
The characteristic dead loads can be estimated using schedule of weights
of building materials given in BS 648 (Table 2.1), Reynolds Handbook
or manufacturers literature.
Symbols
gk -: Uniformly distributed characteristic dead loads
Gk -: Total characteristic dead loads
Gk

International College of Business and

Technology

41

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda

Mahagamage

12/15/15

International College of Business and

Technology

4
2

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Live loads(LL), Imposed loads (IL) - Variable actions

The load assumed to be produced by the intended occupancy or use,
including the weight of movable partitions, distributed, concentrated,
impact & inertia loads. Their magnitude and distribution any given time
are uncertain and even their maximum intensities throughout the lifetime
of the structure are not known with precision.
Symbols
qk -: Uniformly distributed characteristic live loads
Qk -: Total characteristic live loads

Qk

International College of Business and

Technology

4
3

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Environmental Loads - Variable actions

Consist mainly Snow load, Wind pressure and suction, Earthquake load
(i.e inertia forces caused by earthquake motions), Soil pressures on
subsurface portions of structure, loads of possible ponding of rain water
on flat surfaces and forces caused by temperature differentials. These
loads are uncertain both magnitude & distribution.
Wind Loads (WL)
Wind pressure can either add to the other gravitational forces acting on
the structure or equally well, exert suction or negative pressures on the
structure. Under particular situations, the latter may well lead to critical
conditions and must be considered in the design.
The characteristic wind loads acting on a structure can be assessed in
accordance with the recommendations given in CP3: Chapter V: Part
2: 1972 Wind Loads or BS 6399 : Part 2: 1997 Code of Practice for
Wind Loads.
Symbols
wk -: Uniformly distributed characteristic wind loads
Wk -: Total characteristic wind loads

International College of Business and

Technology

4
4

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

DESIGN METHODS

Relationship between stress and strength

1. Permissible stress design

In permissible stress design, sometimes referred to as modular ratio or
elastic design, the stresses in the structure at working loads are not
allowed to exceed a certain proportion of the yield stress of the
construction material, i.e. the stress levels are limited to the elastic range.

2. Load factor design

Load factor or plastic design was used to take account of the behaviour of
the structure once the yield point of the construction material had been
reached. This approach involved calculating the collapse load of the
structure. The working load was derived by dividing the collapse load by a
load factor.
International College of Business and
Technology

45

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

3. Limit State Design

The limit state design can be seen as a compromise between the
permissible and load factor methods. It is in fact a more comprehensive
approach which takes into account both methods in appropriate ways.
Most modern structural codes of practice are now based on the limit state
approach such as,
BS 8110 for concrete
steelwork

BS 5950 for structural

BS 5400 for bridges

BS 5628 for masonry

Code of practice for design in timber, BS5268 and old structural steelwork
code, BS 449 are based on permissible stress designs.
Ultimate limit state
The whole structure or its elements should not collapse, overturn or
buckle when subjected to the design loads. Considerations are,
Strength
The structure must be designed to carry the most severe combination of
loads to which it is subjected. The sections of the elements must be
capable of resisting axial loads, shears and moments derived from the
analysis. The design is made for ultimate loads and design strengths of
materials with partial safety factors applied to loads and material
strengths.
International College of Business and
Technology

46

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

12/15/15

Stability
The layout should be such as to give a stable and robust structure. Overall
stability should ensure compatibility of design and details of parts and
components. The structure should be such as to transmit all loads, dead,
imposed and wind, safely to the foundations.
Robustness
Damage to a small area or failure of a single element should not cause
collapse of a major part of a structure. This means that the design should
be resistant to progressive collapse.
Serviceability limit state
The structure should not become unfit for use due to excessive deflection,
cracking or vibration. Considerations are,
Deflection
The deformation of the structure should not adversely affect its efficiency
or appearance.
Cracking
Cracking should be kept within reasonable limits by correct detailing

International College of Business and

Technology

47

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

6102BEUG- Lecture Note:

01

12/15/15

Design values of
actions

In general, the design value of an action is obtained by multiplying

the representative value by the appropriate partial safety factor for
actions.
The maximum values of partial safety factors for permanent and
variable actions recommended in EC1 are 1.35 and 1.5 respectively.
The comparable values in BS 8110 are 1.4 and 1.6.
It can also be seen that the partial safety factors for actions depend
on a number of other aspects including the category of limit state
as well as the effect of the action on the design situation under
consideration.

International College of Business and

Technology

4
8

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

6102BEUG- Lecture Note:

01

International College of Business and

Technology

12/15/15

4
9

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,

6102BEUG- Lecture Note:

01

12/15/15

0 - accompanying factor for combination value

1 - accompanying factor for frequent value
2 - accompanying factor for quasi-permanent
value
- Reduction factor for unfavorable permanent
actions
recommended value is 0.925 in UK national
International College of Business and
Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
5
Annex
Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,
0

12/15/15

Load Transfer

Fig: Sequence of load transfer between element of a structure

International College of Business and

Technology

51

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng,