EKSPLORASI GEOFISKA

DOSEN :
Dr. Prihadi Sumintadireja
(2010)

PRINCIPAL OF GRAVITY METHOD

INSTRUMENT
GRAVITY UNIT
GRAVITY DATA ACQUISITION
DATA PROCESSING
REGIONAL-RESIDUAL SEPARATION
GRAVITY PROFILES
MICROGRAVITY
4D SURVEY

PRINCIPAL OF GRAVITY METHOD

Newtons Law
Universal Law of Gravitation
Newtons Second Law

UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION

Newtons Second Law

INSTRUMENT
Gravity meter
Based on mass-spring system

LaCoste & Romberg

Worden

INSTRUMENT
Accuracy less than 100 mGal

1 mGal

1 mGal

Superconducting Gravimeter 0,001 mGal

1-5 mGal

GRAVITY UNIT
AND EARTH GRAVITY VARIATION
Earth gravity variation

Unit of gravity
acceleration (g)

Differences between equator and pole ~

5,000,000 mGal

g = 9.8 ms-2
= 980,000 mgal

Differences between highest mountain and

lowest ocean floor
~ 3,000,000 mGal

1 ms-2 = 10-6 mms-2

= 10-9 nms-2

Regional geology structure

~ 100,000 mGal

1Gal
= 10-2 ms-2 (SI)
1mGal = 10-8 ms-2 (SI)

Tidal effect of moon and sun

~ 300 mGal
Microgravity survey ~ 10 mGal
Gravimeter accuracy: 1 mGal

The Relevant
Geologic Parameter
is NOT Density,
But
Density Contrast

GRAVITY DATA ACQUISITION

GRAVITY DATA ACQUISITION

D ay 2

D ay 1

CONTOH METODA PENGUKURAN

PRIHADI SA / 2002

13

DRIFT CORRECTION is applied to eliminate the effect of

spring fatigue of the La Coste instrument. This correction is
derived by double check the starting base station at
appropriate time interval.

TIDAL CORRECTION is applied to eliminate gravity of the

sun and moon which are time function due to relative
motion among earth, moon and sun. The tidal correction
had been calculated in advance using computer by
applying the Longmans formula.

GRAVITY DATA REDUCTIONS

Drift and Tidal
DriftVariation

Drift + Tidal

Tidal

GRAVITY DATA PROCESSING

The data obtained from the sites are sent
directly to the base camp and processed.
1. DATA REDUCTION

2. GRAVITY PROFILES

3. GRAVITY MAP

16

GRAVITY DATA PROCESSING

DATA REDUCTION
The gravity data reduction consists of two types of correction
which are internal and external correction.
The internal corrections are drift and tidal corrections.
The external corrections are ellipsoid gravity value, free air,
bouguer, and terrain corrections.

17

GRAVITY DATA PROCESSING

Factors affecting gravity measurement which are not related to geology,
need to be reduced or corrected
Temporal based variations:
-Instrument drift,
-Tidal effects
Spatial based variations:
-Latitude variations
-Elevation variations
-Slab effects
-Topographic effects

18

GRAVITY DATA REDUCTIONS

Latitude
variation
Earths
Shape

Earths
Rotation

Centrifugal force reduces

gravitational acceleration

19

DATA ACQUISITION
* Gravity Measurement
* GPS Positioning

DRIFT and TIDAL

CORRECTION

* FREE AIR CORRECTION

* BOUGUER CORRECTION

* Bouguer Anomaly

TERRAIN CORRECTION

GRAVITY
DATA
PROCESSING
FLOW
CHART

* Complete Bouguer Anomaly

GRAVITY PROFILES
GRAVITY MAPS

20

ELLIPSOID EARTH GRAVITY reference has to be applied to produce an

earth gravity value at the mean sea level as a function of location
latitude.
This reference implies an homogenous mass distribution of the ellipsoid
earth model.
The ellipsoid model in the IUGG 1979 formula is :
g
= 978.03185 (1 + 0.005278895 sin +
0.000023462 sin4 ) , mgal
where
g
= theoretical gravity as function of
= latitude of the observation point.

21

GRAVITY ANOMALIES
gtheory= gn + g h
gn =Gravity value from Geodetic Reference System
g =Gravity due only to increased distance from the center of mass
h

22

FREE-AIR CORRECTION (FAC) is applied to estimate the earth

gravity at certain altitude of an observation above mean sea level.
The free air correction formula is calculated for average earth
radius at elevation h in meters.
FAC = - 0.3086 h, mgal

23

GRAVITY ANOMALIES
FREE-AIR ANOMALY

g F A = g o b s e r v a t io n - g t h e o r y

24

GRAVITY DATA REDUCTIONS

Variation due
to elevation

Free-Air
g FAcorrection
0.3086 mgal / meter
The minus sign indicates
as the elevation increases, the
observed gravitational
acceleration decreases
Note:
the primary costs of a high-precision
gravity survey is in obtaining the relative
elevations needed to compute the Free-Air
correction
e.g.
for precision of 0.01 mGals, relative station
elevations need to be known to about 3 cm

Need to be corrected so the gravity

acceleration is due to subsurface
geology, NOT due to elevation
differences.

25

BOUGUER CORRECTION (BC) is applied to estimate the earth

gravity at elevation h above sea level with earth mass of
density (gr./cm3) fill up the space of thickness h.
This theoretical Bouguer correction can be written as:
BC
=
2h Gh =
0.04187 h, mgal
where :
G
= 6.67 x 10-9 Cgs unit

= the chosen density in gr./cm3

H
= altitude of observation point in meters.
BOUGUER ANOMALY (BA) is the difference between the
observation gravity value (gobs) and the expected earth normal
gravity at an observation point.
BA

gobs - (g - FAC + BC)

where the magnitude in the bracket is the expected earth

normal gravity.
26

GRAVITY ANOMALIES
BOUGUER ANOMALY

g BA = g FA -

0 .4 1 9 2 h

27

Variation due
to excess
mass

more mass below the reading

taken at a higher elevation
than one taken at a lower
elevation.

Bouguer correction
g BC 0.04193h mgal

Excess mass can be

approximated as a slab of
material with thickness h dan
density r
r can be chosen graphically
using Nettleton or any other
method available
28

GRAVITY DATA REDUCTIONS

Nettleton
method

29

TERRAIN CORRECTION
Pengukuran gaya berat sering dilakukan pada daerah dengan
topografi yang cukup bervariasi.
Koreksi terrain harus dihitung untuk menghilangkan efek relief
permukaan bumi terhadap nilai anomali Bouguer yang dihitung.
Koreksi ini dihitung sebagai efek gaya berat yang ditimbulkan oleh
suatu badan massa tiga dimensional yaitu adanya bukit dan lembah
di sekitar stasion pengukuran gaya berat.

30

31

PRIHADI SA / 2002

INNER ZONE CORRECTION

To apply this correction, a simple topographic survey has to be
performed at every gravity station along a radius of 35 and 68
meters which may be done before or after gravity reading.
Such survey should include the nature of local morphology and the
distance to the gravity station which affects the observation.
The correction was directly calculated at the field by using a certain
gravity terrain inner correction chart.

32

OUTER ZONE CORRECTION

This correction was done by using the Hammer Chart, usually based on
a topographic map of 1 : 250.000 scale.
Applying the terrain correction, the Bouguer Anomaly (BA) can be
refined to be a Complete Bouguer Anomaly (CBA) following this
formula :

CBA = gobs - (g - FAC + BC - TC)

or
CBA = BA + TC

33

METODA PERHITUNGAN KOREKSI

TERRAIN
Metoda konvensional untuk menghitung koreksi terrain adalah dengan
menggunakan Hammer Chart dan peta topografi berskala tertentu.
Sekarang ini perhitungan koreksi terrain dilakukan dengan bantuan
komputer, salah satunya adalah Metoda Integrasi Numerik.

34

TERRAIN CORRECTION CALCULATION

FLOW CHART
Gravity
Observation

Station
Position X, Y, Z

Topographic
Map

Digitizing,
Gridding and
Merging

Projection
System Similar to
the Map

Transformation
of the Coordinate
Y

TerrainCorrection

35

Sketch measurement topographic for Terrain Correction

36

GRAVITY DATA REDUCTIONS

Terrain correction
Variation in gravity due to nearby
topography

We always observe a smaller gravitational acceleration

at B, because:
- pulled by mountain mass
- no mass in valley
Terrain Corrections are always positive in
value!!
37

COMPLETE BOUGUER ANOMALY

CBA= gobs - gn + 0.3086h - 0.04193r h + TC (mGal)

38

GRAVITY ANOMALIES
REGIONAL- RESIDUAL SEPARATION

39

40

REGIONAL-RESIDUAL SEPARATION
CBA/BA = regional +
residual
Regional:
-regional or trend geology , deep subsurface,
-featured as long wavelength in gravity signal
Residual:
- local geology or shallow subsurface
- featured as short wavelength in gravity signal

41

REGIONAL-RESIDUAL SEPARATION
Profile

42

REGIONAL-RESIDUAL SEPARATION

Map

43

Example

Observed gravity

44

Example

Regional gravity

45

Example

Residual gravity

46

MASS INHOMOGONEITY
ACROSS A NORMAL FAULT

47

A N O M A L I S IS A (M G A L )

1 0 .0

d a ta
5 .0

p e r h it u n g a n

0 .0

-5 .0
132

136

140

144
UTARA

SELATAN
1 .0

E L E V A S I (K M )

0 .0

148

L H D -4

L H D -5

L H D -2

L H D -3

GRAVITASI
PROFIL
ANOMALI
SISA
DAN
MODEL
2-DIMENSI

a n d e s it b a s a lt ik te r u b a h ( 2 . 5 g r /c c )
t u ff a , ig n im b r it e ( 2 . 0 g r / c c )
a n d e s it ( 2 . 6 g r / c c )

-1 .0

s e d im e n ( 2 . 2 g r / c c )
a n d e s it ( 2 . 6 7 g r /c c )

-2 .0
in tr u s i d io r it ( 2 .9 g r /c c )

-3 .0

PRIHADI SA /
2002

48

A N O M A L I S IS A (M G A L )

1 0 .0

d a ta
5 .0

p e r h itu n g a n

0 .0

-5 .0
696

700

704

708
T IM U R

BARAT
1 .0

E L E V A S I (K M )

0 .0

712

GRAVITASI
PROFIL
ANOMALI
SISA
DAN
MODEL
2-DIMENSI

L H D -1

L H D -5

L H D -7
a n d e s it b a s a lt ik t e r u b a h ( 2 . 5 g r / c c )
t u f f a , ig n im b r it e ( 2 . 0 g r / c c )
a n d e s it ( 2 .6 g r /c c )

-1 .0

a n d e s it ( 2 . 6 7 g r / c c )
in t r u s i d io r it ( 2 . 9 g r / c c )

-2 .0

-3 .0

49

GRAVITY PROFILES
Gravity profile will be produced for each line using its reduced data to present
the trend of gravity values along the line.

GRAVITY MAP
Consists of CBA/BA anomaly map, regional gravity map, residual
gravity map.

50

Density of Common Geologic Material ( Telford et al. 1990 )

No.

Material Type

Density range

Approximate average

( Mg / m3 )

density ( Mg / m3 )

Unconsolidated Sediment
Alluvium
Clay
Gravel
Loess
Silt
Soil

1.96
1.63
1.70
1.40
1.80
1.20

2.00
2.60
2.40
1.93
2.20
2.40

1.98
2.21
2.00
1.64
1.93
1.92

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Sedimentary Rocks
Sand
Sandstone
Shale
Limestone
Dolomite
Chalk
Halite
Glacier Ice

1.70
1.61
1.77
1.93
2.28
1.53
2.10
0.88

2.30
2.76
3.20
2.90
2.90
2.60
2.60
0.92

2.00
2.35
2.40
2.55
2.70
2.01
2.22
0.90

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

Igneous Rocks
Rhyolite
Granite
Andesite
Syenite
Basalt
Gabbro

2.35
2.50
2.40
2.60
2.70
2.70

2.70
2.81
2.80
2.95
3.30
3.50

2.52
2.64
2.61
2.77
2.99
3.03

21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.

Metamorphic Rocks
Schist
Gneiss
Phylite
Slate
Granulite
Amphibolite
Eclogite

2.39
2.59
2.68
2.70
2.52
2.90
3.20

2.90
3.00
2.80
2.90
2.73
3.04
3.54

2.64
2.80
2.74
2.79
2.65
2.96
3.37

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

( from John M. Reynolds, An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics, 1997 )

51

Densities of Minerals and Miscellaneous Materials ( Telford et al, 1990 )

No.

1.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.

6.
7.
8.
9.

10.
11.
12.
13.

Material Type

Metallic minerals
Oxides, Carbonates
Manganite
Chromite
Magnetite
Haematite
Cuprite
Cassiterite
Woframite
Uraninite
Copper
Silver
Gold
Sulphides
Malachite
Stannite
Pyrrhotite
Molybdenite
Pyrite
Cobaltite
Galena
Cinnabar
Non-metallic minerals
Gypsum
Bauxite
Kaolinite
Baryte
Miscellaneous materials
Snow
Petroleum
Lignite
Anthracite

Density Range

Approximate average density

( Mg/m3 )

( Mg / m3 )

4.2 - 4.4
4.2 - 4.6
4.9 - 5.2
4.9 - 5.3
5.7 - 6.15
6.8 - 7.1
7.1 - 7.5
8.0 - 9.97
n.d
n.d
15.6 - 19.4

4.32
4.36
5.12
5.18
5.92
6.92
7.32
9.17
8.7
10.5
17.0

3.9 - 4.03
4.3 - 4.52
4.5 - 4.8
4.4 - 4.8
4.9 - 5.2
5.8 - 6.3
7.4 - 7.6
8.0 - 8.2

4.0
4.4
4.65
4.7
5.0
6.1
7.5
8.1

2.2 - 2.6
2.3 - 2.55
2.2 - 2.63
4.3 - 4.7

2.35
2.45
2.53
4.47

0.05 - 0.88
0.6 - 0.9
1.1 - 1.25
1.34 - 1.8

n.d
n.d
1.19
1.50

52

PRIHADI SA / 2002

148

GRAVITASI
ANOMALI
BOUGUER

146

L H D -3
144

rapat massa =
2.67 gr/cm3

L H D -2
142
L H D -1

L H D -5

L H D -7

140

L H D -4 ,8 ,9 ,1 0

L H D -6

138

136

2 km

134

132
696

698

700

702

704

706

708

710

712

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

MICROGRAVITY
4D SURVEY

61

MICROGRAVITY
The cause of microgravity
anomalies:
Changes in elevation
Changes in subsurface density (e.g.,
changes
in groundwater
depth, filled-pore
Gobs (t=1)
Gobs (t=2)
4D Grav
gt=2
fluids, pressure)
gt=1

62

MONITORING APPLICATIONS

Geothermal reservoirs
Gas reservoirs
Oil reservoirs
Volcano activities
Land subsidence
Rainfall and its influence on
hydrology

63

4D MICROGRAVITY
CASE STUDY

SIDOARJO MUD EXTRUSION

64

4D MICROGRAVITY ANOMALIES
27 AUGUST 17 SEPTEMBER 2006
Negative anomalies: decreasing density (mud flow
to surface)
Positive anomalies : increasing density (land
subsidence)
mGal

Mass movement direction

65

Observation:
Mass movement versus Watukosek fault
lineament
Hypothesis:
Mud extrusion are controlled by fault??

4D Microgravity
anomalies
27 August 12
October 2006
mGal

Mass movement direction

66

GEOHAZARD RISKS
Vulnerable
area
mGal

Mass movement direction

67

4D MICROGRAVITY
OTHER EXAMPLES

68

Exampl
e

Groundwat
er

Extracti
on

Injection

69

Mass
changes

Example

High Anomaly
Injection zone
Low Anomaly
Extraction
zone

70

Land
Subsidence

Period 1978-1996
Groningen, The
Netherlands

Land Subsidence (in

cm)

Exampl
e

Gravity
changes

71

REFERENCES
Thomas M. Boyd, University of Melbourne
http://www.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/ES304/MOD
ULES/GRAV/main.html
Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P. and Sheriff, R.E.,
1990. Applied Geophysics. Cambridge
University Press, 770 pp.
Sarkowi, M., 2006. Gayaberat-Mikro Antar Waktu
untuk Analisa Perubahan Kedalaman Muka Air
Tanah Studi Kasus Dataran Aluvial Semarang.
PhD Thesis, Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB),
Bandung, Indonesia, 118 pp.

72