Measurements in Fluid Mechanics

Measurements in Fluid Mechanics
Grading
The final course grade will be based on the total points earned during the
semester. The distribution of points is as follows:
One hour Tests

Class project/Asss
ATwo in-semester exams
Final examination
TOTAL
30% (3 OHTs)
10%
12.5% each
25%
= 25
= 25
= 25
= 25
= 100 points
Lecture 2. Description of flows
ow velocity and velocity fields

Lagrangian description
x3
Cartesian coordinate system (x1, x2, x3)

Xn( t )
Position of fluid element n at initial time t0 : Xn,0
Xn,0
Trajectory of fluid element
Xn
Xn(t)+Xn
Position of fluid element at time t : Xn(t)

Displacement Xn in t
x1
x2
Position after displacement: Xn(t+t)=Xn(t)+Xn
Flow velocity:
Acceleration:
Velocity field:
V = Vn(t) = V(Xn,0,t) for n=1,2,3,,N

4

Eulerian ( spatial ) description
Velocity field:
Ui =Ui (x1, x2, x3, t)
Acceleration:
= + +
= ++
Local acceleration
ate of strain tensor:
Vorticity:
i=1,2,3
Convective acceleration

Eulerian ( spatial ) description
Velocity field:
Ui =Ui (x1, x2, x3, t)
Acceleration:
i=1,2,3
Local acceleration
= + +
= ++
Convective acceleration
nalytical description of flows

Conventional Fluid Mechanics is based on four basic axiomatic principles
-Applied to fixed control volume
- The conservation of mass (or continuity equation)
- fluid density
v - control volume
- Newtons second law (or momentum equation)- velocity vector

A - area of surface
- external force
- The first law of thermodynamics

(or energy equation)
- The second law of thermodynamics
- heat transfer rate

- mechanical power
u - specific internal energy
p - pressure
g - gravitational
acceleration
z upwards vertical axis
s - specific entropy
T - temperature
ommonly used theoretical approach

1. Fluid statics
2. Inviscid incompressible flows - simplest mathematical model of fluid flow
3. Viscous incompressible flows - with constant density.
4. Compressible flows - with significant density variation
5. Turbulent flows - flow properties vary rapidly and randomly in space and time.
6. Complex flows
atterns of fluid motion

Pathlines
- trajectories of individual fluid particles

- may be visualized with multiple exposed particle
images
Stroboscopic illumination of oil drop in laminar pipe flow

9

Streamlines
- A streamline is a curve such that tangent to it at any point gives direction of the velocity
at that point, i.e.
10

Streamlines
- may be visualized with smoke lines in stead air flow
- may be visualized with tuft screen method
Smoke lines around an airfoil model

in a wind-tunnel
Trailing vortices behind an inclined

delta-wing visualized by a tuft screen
11

Timelines - each formed by a set of fluid particles at a previous instant in time,
and displaced in time as the particles move
- may be visualized with Hydrogen-bubble technique
Consecutive rows of hydrogen bubbles indicating

Velocity profiles a flat plat boundary layer
12

Streaklines - each formed by locus of all fluid particles passing through a fixed position
- may be visualized with dye lines in water flow
Vortex flow behind a yawed cylinder visualized

with mixture of ink, milk and alcohol
13

In steady flows, pathlines, streaklines and streamlines coincide.
In unsteady flows, they may be vastly different.
Red Pathline
Blue Streakline
Dash Sreamline
14
Lecture 3. Similarity and flow motion patterns
15
milarity and non-dimensionalization

Different ways to perform measurement:
1. Actual system under actual operation condition - expensive and impossible in most cases
16

2. Actual system under modified condition
- expensive and impossible in many cases
17

3. Model system under controlled condition
- low cost and possible
18

Dimensional analysis
Dimensional analysis is a method for reducing the number and complexity
of experimental variables which affect a given physical phenomenon
F f ( L, V , , )
F f ( L, V , , , )
VL
F
V 2 L2

VL
F
g
,
V 2 L2
CF g Re
CF g Re,
p V
p L p

Fm m V m Lm
Fp
Scaling Law
Three purpose of dimensional analysis
1. To generate non-dimensional parameters to help in design of experiments and reporting
of experimental results-The first is enormous savings in time and money
2. To obtain scaling laws so that the prototype performance can be predicted from model
exp.
3. To (sometimes) predict trends in relationship between parameters-. A second
side benefit of dimensional analysis is that it helps our thinking
and planning for an experiment or theory.

Similarity - When the scaling law is valid, we say that a condition of similarity
exists between the model and the prototype
- enable application of measured properties with model system and
modified condition to actual system under actual condition.
20

Requirements of similarity
1. Geometrically similar - Similarity of shape, the same ratios of all corresponding
dimensions-Scale factor
2. Kinematically similar - Similarity of motion- Implies similarity of length (Geometry

similarity) and Similarity of Time interval
3. Dynamically similar
- same force directions and constant ratio of magnitudes
21
ommon dimensionless parameters

Reynolds number - ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces
V characteristic velocity kinematic viscosity
dynamic viscosity
( = )
L characteristic length
Mach number - used to describe effects of compressibility
Pressure coefficient
V flow velocity
c speed of sound
- ratio of pressure and inertia forces

p pressure pref reference pressure
density
V flow velocity
Drag coefficient - ratio of drag force and inertia forces
FD drag forceA frontal area
density
V flow velocity
Lift coefficient - ratio of lift force and inertia forces
FL lift force A frontal area
density
V flow velocity
22

Prandtl number - ratio of rates of diffusion of momentum and heat due to molecular motions
thermal diffusivity
kinematic viscosity dynamic
viscosity
cp specific heat under contant pressure k thermal
conductivity
Schmidt number - ratio of rates of diffusion of momentum and mass in fluid
c molecular diffusivity of a fluid mixture of species in a

fluid mixture
Froude number - square represents ratio of inertia to gravitational forces
V flow velocityL characteristic length

g gravitational acceleration magnitude
Weber number
- ratio of inertia to surface-tension forces

surface tension density
V flow velocity
Capillary number - ratio of viscos forces to surface-tension forces
dynamic
V flow velocity
viscosity
surface tension
23

Cavitation number
Pv vapour pressure
Nusselt number
Biot number
- ratio of total and conductive heat transfer rates in a fluid

h overall heat transfer
coefficient
k thermal conductivity of
fluid
- ratio of heat transfer rates to surrounding fluid and solid interior
Peclet number
h overall heat transfer

coefficient
k thermal conductivity of
solid
- ratio of heat convection and heat conduction

V flow velocity
thermal diffusivity
Grashof number
- ratio of buoyancy forces and viscous forces

thermal expansion
Tcoefficient
temperature difference
24

Rayleigh number - for free thermal convection
Marangoni number - for convection induced by surface-tension gradients
- for concentration gradients
- for temperature gradients

Richardson number
- for density-stratified flows
- ratio of potential energy associate with gravity and kinetic energy.

25

Taylor number
- for rotation flows
Rossby number
rotation
rate
- for rotation flows
- ratio of inertia and Coriolis forces
Strouhal number - for periodic vortex shedding from bluff objects
f frequency of vortex shedding
Knudsen number - for gas
mean free path

26
References
- The slides are adapted from the Lectures Notes for Measurements in Fluid
Mechanics by Lichuan Gui, Dr.-Ing. Available from http://lcgui.net/
- The various figures/pictures are from different websites from the internet
27

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Measurements in Fluid Mechanics

One hour Tests

Lecture 2. Description of flows

ow velocity and velocity fields

Cartesian coordinate system (x1, x2, x3)

Position of fluid element n at initial time t0 : Xn,0

Trajectory of fluid element

Position of fluid element at time t : Xn(t)

Position after displacement: Xn(t+t)=Xn(t)+Xn

V = Vn(t) = V(Xn,0,t) for n=1,2,3,,N

ow velocity and velocity fields

Ui =Ui (x1, x2, x3, t)

ate of strain tensor:

ow velocity and velocity fields

Ui =Ui (x1, x2, x3, t)

nalytical description of flows

- Newtons second law (or momentum equation)- velocity vector

- The first law of thermodynamics

- The second law of thermodynamics

- heat transfer rate

ommonly used theoretical approach

atterns of fluid motion

- trajectories of individual fluid particles

Stroboscopic illumination of oil drop in laminar pipe flow

atterns of fluid motion

atterns of fluid motion

Smoke lines around an airfoil model

Trailing vortices behind an inclined

atterns of fluid motion

Consecutive rows of hydrogen bubbles indicating

atterns of fluid motion

Vortex flow behind a yawed cylinder visualized

atterns of fluid motion

Lecture 3. Similarity and flow motion patterns

milarity and non-dimensionalization

milarity and non-dimensionalization

- expensive and impossible in many cases

milarity and non-dimensionalization

- low cost and possible

milarity and non-dimensionalization

milarity and non-dimensionalization

milarity and non-dimensionalization

2. Kinematically similar - Similarity of motion- Implies similarity of length (Geometry

- same force directions and constant ratio of magnitudes

ommon dimensionless parameters

V characteristic velocity kinematic viscosity

Mach number - used to describe effects of compressibility

- ratio of pressure and inertia forces

Drag coefficient - ratio of drag force and inertia forces

FD drag forceA frontal area

Lift coefficient - ratio of lift force and inertia forces

FL lift force A frontal area

ommon dimensionless parameters

Schmidt number - ratio of rates of diffusion of momentum and mass in fluid

c molecular diffusivity of a fluid mixture of species in a

Froude number - square represents ratio of inertia to gravitational forces

V flow velocityL characteristic length

- ratio of inertia to surface-tension forces