Computer Networks

Topics to be covered
Unit I Basics of Networks
Network Components and categories types
of Connections Topologies Layers Physical
Links Hybrid Multiple Access Techniques
Medium Access CSMA Ethernet Token Ring
FDDI Wireless LAN
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What is a computer Network?

A network is any collection of independent computers that
communicate with one another over a shared network medium.
A computer network is a collection of two or more connected
computers. When these computers are joined in a network,
people can share files and peripherals such as modems,
printers, tape backup drives, or CD-ROM drives.

When networks at multiple locations are connected using

services available from phone companies, people can send email, share links to the global Internet, or conduct video
conferences in real time with other remote users.

When a network becomes open sourced it can be managed

properly with online collaboration software.
As companies rely on applications like electronic mail and
database management for core business operations, computer
networking becomes increasingly more important.
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Every network includes:

At least two computers Server or Client workstation.
Networking Interface Card's (NIC)
A connection medium, usually a wire or cable,
although wireless communication between networked
computers and peripherals is also possible.
Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft
Windows NT or 2000, Novell NetWare, Unix and Linux.

Types of Networks:
LANs (Local Area Networks)
networks usually confined to a geographic area, such as a
single building or a college campus.
LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but
often link hundreds of computers used by thousands of
people.
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 WANs (Wide Area Networks)

combines multiple LANs that are geographically
separate.
This is accomplished by connecting the different LANs
using services such as dedicated leased phone lines,
dial-up
phone
lines
(both
synchronous
and
asynchronous), satellite links, and data packet carrier
services.

MANs (Metropolitan area Networks)

The refers to a network of computers with in a City.

VPN (Virtual Private Network)

Tunneling to transfer data securely on the Internet to a
remote access server on your workplace network.
VPN helps you save money by using the public Internet
instead of making longdistance phone calls to connect
securely with your private network
There are two ways to create a VPN connection, by
dialing an Internet service provider (ISP), or connecting
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directly to Internet.

Categories of Network
Network can be divided in to two main categories:
Peer-to-peer.
there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy among the computers.
All of the computers are equal and therefore known as peers.
Normally each computer serves as Client/Server and there is no
one assigned to be an administrator responsible for the entire
network.

Server based.
The client/server network is the most efficient way to provide:

Databases and management of applications such as Spreadsheets,

Accounting, Communications and Document management.
Network management.
Centralized file storage.

The client/server model is basically

distributed or cooperative processing.

an

implementation

of

 At the heart of the model is the concept of splitting application

functions between a client and a server processor.

The division of labor between the different processors enables

the application designer to place an application function on the
processor that is most appropriate for that function.

This lets the software designer optimize the use of processors

by providing the greatest possible return on investment for the
hardware.
Client/server application design also lets the application
provider mask the actual location of application function.
The user often does not know where a specific operation is
executing. The entire function may execute in either the PC or
server, or the function may be split between them.
This masking of application function locations enables system
implementers to upgrade portions of a system over time with a
minimum disruption of application operations, while protecting
the investment in existing hardware and software.
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Network Hardware Components

What are the Hardware Components commonly
found in a typical Network . . .?
Cables
Client Adapters
Hubs
Switches
Access Points
Routers
Modems
Modem Routers
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Ethernet Cables
When we reference Cables in Networking we are generally referring to
RJ45 Ethernet Networking Cables;

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables (UTP).

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

These Cables are often referred to by the Standard that they adhere to i.e.
Category 5 (Cat 5) or Category 6 (Cat 6).
The Cables are further distinguished with regard to they way in which they
are wired;

Straight-Through (Patch)
Crossover

Due to the widespread use of Auto-Sensing LAN Ports we see very little
occasions where a Crossover Cable is actually required now.
Generally speaking Crossover Cables are just used when networking two
PCs directly together, or when daisy-chaining Network Hubs.
For all other instances Patch Cables are generally used.

Ethernet Cables - UTP Cables

Solid Core - Solid each Conductor is a single
relatively thick Copper Wire Stranded - each Conductor consists of a number
of thin Copper Wires
Solid Cable is used for infrastructure Cabling. The
cable is inflexible because of its structure and
the maximum length would be 100 meters.
Stranded Cables have no fixed maximum length,
but are generally used for short distances. The
Cables are flexible, and the maximum length
largely depends on Cable Quality and Shielding.
Standard Ethernet (10/100) Cables only use 4 out
of the 8 Connectors, whereas Gigabit uses all 8.
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Client Adapters
There are numerous types of Network Interface Cards or Client
Adapters and they are usually identified by their Type and Connection
Technology;
Every Network Interface Card (NIC) has a unique MAC address
pointing to its Manufacturer.

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Hub
Hubs tie the Network together.
A Network can be extended by daisy-chaining one Hub to
another.
Hubs by default echo all traffic to all Ports, so when a Packet of
data arrives at one Port, it is copied to the other Ports so that all
segments of the Network can see all Packets.

Switch
Switches differ from Hubs in that they track MAC Addresses on
both sides of the Network and do not echo any traffic that does
not need to be echoed.
Broadcast messages are not filtered via Switches, and these are
continued to be echoed to all Ports, but otherwise the Switch is
intelligently filtering to ensure that only traffic destined for a
particular MAC Address on a Particular Port, gets to that device.

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Access Point

An Access Point is a device for adding Wireless Connectivity to an

existing Wired Network.
It is clear that an Access Point is a Wireless Device . . . But is it a Hub
or a Switch?
Well it is in fact both a Hub and a Switch.
As Access Points are Wireless, and Wireless Bandwidth is by nature a
shared resource, the Access Point (AP) is acting in this role as a Hub
as it does not filter any of the Wireless Communication.
If however an Access Point Is connected to an existing Wired Network,
then the Access Point (AP) will act like a Switch and filter Traffic
accordingly. Should Client A send Data to Client B, the Access Point
will filter the Data and ensure that it is not broadcasted to all Ports.

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Router -

A Router is in fact a . . .Router + Access Point + Network Switch

Whereas a Network Switch works at a MAC Address level a Router works at

level, an IP Address level, and it has an IP Address for each Network that it
is connected to.
Based on Source and Destination IP Address and the Networks to which
they belong, the Router decides to which Network to forward the Packet.
Most End-User Routers, are Gateway Routers that simply connect a Local
(LAN) Network with the rest of the World (WAN).
Gateway Routers are usually based around Network Address Translation
(NAT).
The Network Address Translation (NAT) element handles the traffic from
Routable(external) IP Addresses to the non-Routable (internal) IP Addresses
of a typical internal Network or LAN.
Three special Address Ranges are to be used in Local Networks
(LANs) only, and they should not be forwarded to any Public Network.

Class A: 10.x.x.x
Class B: 172.16.x.x 172.31.x.x
Class C: 192.168.x.x
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Modem
The name Modem derives from the functionality of the Device
in that it is Modem in essence a Modulator/Demodulator.
It is essentially a Communications Device that converts one
form of a signal to another that is suitable for transmission
over a Phone Line.
Typically Digital Data from a PC is converted to Analogue Data
which is sent via the Phone Line and then from converted back
from this Analogue Data to Digital Data again on the next PC.
Modem Routers
A Modem Router is in fact a . . . Router + Access Point + Network
Switch + Modem + NAT device

The WAN Port found on a typical Router is essentially replaced

with a Phone Line connection Point.
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Topologies

The geometrical arrangement of computer resources, remote

devices and communication facilities is known as Network
structure or Network topology.
A computer network is comprised of nodes and links, a node
is the end point of any branch in a computer, a terminal
device, workstation or interconnecting equipment facility.
A link is a communication path between two nodes. The
terms circuit and Channel are frequently used as
synonyms for the link.
Topologies can be physical or logical. Physical Topology
means the physical design of a network including the
devices, location and cable installation.

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I. Bus Topology
This structure is very popular for local
area networks. In this structure or
topology, a single network cable runs in
the building or campus
and all nodes are
linked along with this communication
line with two endpoints called the bus or backbone as
show figure.
By this type of topology, if one node goes faulty all nodes may be
affected as all nodes share the same cable for the sending and
receiving of information.
The cabling cost of bus systems is the least of all the different
topologies. Each end of the cable is terminated using a special
terminator.
Advantages:
Reliable in very small networks as well as easy to use and understand.
Requires least amount of cable to connect the computers (nodes)
together and therefore is less expensive than other cabling
arrangements.
It's easy to extend, Two cables can be easily joined with a connector,
making a longer cable for more computers to join the network.
A repeater can also be used to extend a bus configuration
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Disadvantages:
Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably because any
computer can transmit at any time. But networks do not coordinate
when information is sent. Computer interrupting each other can use
a lot of bandwidth.
Each connection between two cables weakens the electrical signal.
The bus configuration can be difficult to find and can cause the
whole networks to stop functioning.

II. Ring Topology

This is yet another structure for local area networks.
In this topology, the network cable passes from one node to
another until all nodes are connected in the form of a loop or
ring.
There is a direct point-to-point link between two neighboring
nodes (the Next and the Previous).
These links are unidirectional which ensures
that transmission by a node traverses the
whole ring and comes back to the node,
which made the transmission as shown in
figure.

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 Information travels around the ring from one node to the next.
Each packet of data sent to the ring is prefixed by the address of
the station to which it is being sent.
When a packet of data arrives, the node checks to see if the
packet address is the same as its own, if it is, it grabs the data in
the packet. If the packet does not belong to it, it sends the
packet to the next node in the ring.
Faulty nodes can be isolated from the ring. When the workstation
is powered on, it connects itself to the ring. When power is off, it
disconnects itself from the ring and allows the information to
bypass the node.
The most common implementation of this topology is token ring.
A break in the ring causes the entire network to fail. Individual
nodes can be isolated from the ring.
Advantages:
Ring networks offer high performance for a small number of workstations or
for larger networks where each station has a similar workload.
Ring networks can span longer distances than other types of networks.
Ring networks are easily extendable.
Unlike Bus topology, there is no signal loss in Ring topology because the
tokens are data packets that are re-generated at each node.
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Disadvantages:

Relatively expensive and difficult to install

Failure of one computer on the network can affect the whole network.
It is difficult to find fault in a ring network.
Adding or removing computers can disrupt the network.
It is much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load.

III. Star Topology

Star topology uses a central hub through which, all components are
connected.
In a Star topology, the central hub is the host computer, and at the end
of each connection is a terminal as shown in Figure.
Nodes communicate across the network by passing data
through the hub. A star network uses a significant
amount of cable as each terminal is wired back to the
central hub, even if two terminals are side by side but several hundred
meters away from the host. The central hub makes all routing
decisions, and all other workstations can be simple.
An advantage of the star topology is that failure, in one of the terminals
does not affect any other terminal; however, failure of the central hub
affects all terminals. This type of topology is frequently used to connect
terminals to a large time-sharing host computer.
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Advantages:
It is more reliable (if one connection fails, it does not affect others)
The center of a star network is a good place to diagnose network
faults and if one computer fails whole network is not disturbed.
Hub detects the fault and isolates the faulty computer.
It is easy to replace, install or remove hosts or other devices, the
problem can be easily detected-It is easier to modify or add a new
computer without disturbing the rest of the network by simply
running a new line from the computer to the central location and
plugging it to the hub.
Use of multiple cable types in a same network with a hub.
It has good performance

Disadvantages
It is expensive to install as it requires more cable, it costs more to
cable a star network because all network cables must be pulled to
one central point, requiring more cable length than other
networking topologies.
Central node dependency, if central hub fails, the whole network
fails to operate.
Many star networks require a device at the central point to
rebroadcast or switch the network traffic.
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IV. Mesh Topology

Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between
network nodes. In a well-connected topology, every node has a
connection to every other node in the network. The cable requirements
are high, but there are redundant paths built in.
Failure in one of the computers does not cause the network to break
down, as they have alternative paths to other computers
Mesh topologies are used in critical connection of host computers
(typically telephone exchanges). Alternate paths allow each computer
to balance the load to other computer systems in the network by using
more than one of the connection paths available.
A fully connected mesh network therefore has no (n-1) /2 physical
channels to link n devices. To accommodate these, every device on the
network must have (n-1) input/output ports.
Advantages
Yield the greatest amount of redundancy in the event
that one of the nodes fails where network traffic can
be redirected to another node.
Point-to-point link makes fault isolation easy.
Privacy between computers is maintained as messages
travel along dedicated path.
Network problems are easier to diagnose.
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Disadvantages
The amount of cabling required is high.
A large number of I/O (input/output) ports are required.

V. Tree Topology

The most common structure or topology known as Tree

topology, Tree topology is a LAN topology in which only
one route exists between any two nodes on the network.
The pattern of connection resembles a tree in which all
branches spring from one root.
Advantages
Installation and configuration of network are easy.
The addition of the secondary hub allows more devices
to be attached to the central hub.
Less expensive when compared to mesh topology.
Faults in the network can be detected traces

Disadvantages
Failure in the central hub brings the entire network to a halt.
More cabling is required when compared to the bus topology
because each node is connected to the central hub.

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Network Components
A data communications system has five components

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated.

Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by
which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of
transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.
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LAYERED TASKS

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Physical Layer - responsible for movements of individual bits

from one hop (node) to the next

The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry

a bit stream over a physical medium.
It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the
interface and transmission medium.
It also defines the procedures and functions that physical
devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission to
Occur.

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The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical
layer defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices
and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission
medium.
Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream
of bits (sequence of Os or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted,
bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical. The physical
layer defines the type of encoding (how Os and I s are changed to
signals).
Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each secondis also defined by the physical layer. In other words, the physical layer
defines the duration of a bit, which is how long it lasts.
Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use
the same bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level. In
other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the
connection of devices to the media. In a point-to-point configuration,
two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint
configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are
connected to make a network.
Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of
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transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Data Link Layer - responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer

Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer
into manageable data units called frames.
Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or
receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's
network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects the network to
the next one.
Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than
the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow
control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a
mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a
trailer added to the end of the frame.
Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link
layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any
given time.
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Network Layer - responsible for the delivery of individual pkts from the source
to the destination.

The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a

packet, possibly across multiple networks (links).
Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between
two systems on the same network (links), the network layer ensures that
each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination.

Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data
link layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the
network boundary, we need another addressing system to help
distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer adds
a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other
things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create
internetworks (network of networks) or a large network, the connecting
devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the packets to their
final destination. One of the functions of the network layer is to provide
this mechanism.
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Transport Layer - responsible for the delivery of a message from one process

to another.
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire
message.
A process is an application program running on a host.
Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual
packets, it does not recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats
each one independently, as though each piece belonged to a separate
message, whether or not it does.
The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole message arrives
intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the sourceto-destination level.

Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the
same time. For this reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery
not only from one computer to the next but also from a specific process
(running program) on one computer to a specific process (running program)
on the other.
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 Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into

transmittable segments, with each segment containing a sequence
number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble
the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to
identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
Connection control. The transport layer can be either
connectionless or connection oriented. A connectionless transport
layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it
to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection
oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport
layer at the destination
machine first before delivering the
packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is
terminated.
Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is
responsible for flow control. However, flow control at this layer is
performed end to end rather than across a single link.
Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is
responsible for error control. However, error control at this layer is
performed process-to process rather than across a single link. The
sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives
at the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or
duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through
retransmission.
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Session Layer synchronization.

responsible

for

dialog

control

and

The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network)
are not sufficient for some processes.
The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and
synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.

Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a
dialog. It allows the communication between two processes to take
place in either half duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways
at a time) mode.
Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add
checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a stream of data.

For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert

checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and
acknowledged independently.
In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages
that need to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous
31 to
501 need not be resent.

Presentation Layer - responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.

The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems.

Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:

Translation. The processes in two systems are usually exchanging information
in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be
changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because different computers
use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for
interoperability between these different encoding methods. The presentation
layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format
into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes
the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure
privacy. Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to
another form and sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption
reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information. Data compression becomes particularly important in the
transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
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Application Layer - responsible for providing services to the user

The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to
access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic
mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and
other types of distributed information services.
Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:
Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software
version of a physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a
remote host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation of
a terminal at the remote host. The user's computer talks to the
software terminal which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice versa. The
remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own
terminals and allows the user to log on.
File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a
user to access files in a remote host (to make changes or read data),
to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local
computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail
forwarding and storage.
Directory services. This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects and
services.
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 PHYSICAL LINKS

Guided Media
Guided media conduct signals from one device to another include Twistedpair cable, Coaxial Cable and Fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of
these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium.
Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept
and transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a glass
cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper) each
with its own plastic insulation, twisted together.
One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver
Other is used as ground reference

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 Interference and cross talk may affect both the wires and create
unwanted signals, if the two wires are parallel.
By twisting the pair, a balance is maintained. Suppose in one twist one
wire is closer to noise and the other is farther in the next twist the
reverse is true. Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally
affected by external influences.
Twisted Pair Cable comes into two forms:
Unshielded
Shielded

Unshielded versus shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh
covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors.
Metal casing improves that quality of cable by preventing the
penetration of noise or cross talk.
It is more expensive.
Applications
Twisted Pair cables are used in telephone
lines to provide voice and data channels.
Local area networks also use twisted pair
cables.
Connectors
The most common UTP connector is RJ45.

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Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable (coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges

than twisted pair cable.
Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor
of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an
insulating sheath, and with outer conductor of metal foil.
The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against
noise and as the second conductor and the whole cable is
protected by a plastic cover.
Applications
It is used in analog and digital telephone networks
It is also used in Cable TV networks
It is used in Ethernet LAN

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Fiber Optic Cable

A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits
signals in the form of light.
Properties of light
Light travels in a straight line as long as it moves through a
single uniform substance. If traveling through one substance
suddenly enters another, ray changes its direction.
If the angle of incidence(the angle the ray makes with the
line perpendicular to the interface between the two
medium) is less than the critical angle the ray refracts and
move closer to the surface.
If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the
light bends along the interface.
If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle,
the ray reflects and travels again in the denser substance.
Critical angle differs from one medium to another medium.
Optical fiber use reflection to guide light through a channel.

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A Glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less

dense glass or plastic.
Mode
`
Multimode

StepIndex

Single mode

Graded Index

Multimode
In the multiple mode, multiple light
beams from a source move through
the core in different paths
Single Mode
Single mode uses step-index fiber
and a highly focused source of light
that limits beams to a small range of
angles, all close to the horizontal.
The single mode fiber itself is
manufactured with a much smaller
diameter than that of multimedia
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fiber.

Unguided media
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without
using a physical conductor. This type of communication is often
referred to as wireless communication.
Signals are normally broadcast through air and thus available
to anyone who has device capable of receiving them.
Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in
several ways:
Ground propagation waves travel through lowest
portion on atmosphere.
Sky propagation High frequency waves radiate upward
into ionosphere and reflected back to earth.
Line-of-sight propagation Very high frequency signals
travel in a straight line

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Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1
GHz are normally called radio waves.
Properties
Radio waves are omni directional. When an antenna transmits radio
waves, they are propagated in all directions. This means that the
sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.
A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving
antenna.
Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can
penetrate walls.

Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz
are called microwaves.
Properties

Microwaves are unidirectional.

Sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned
Microwave propagation is line-of-sight
Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls
Parabolic Dish antenna focus all incoming waves into single point
Outgoing transmissions are broadcast through a horn aimed at the dish.
40

Disadvantage
If receivers are inside buildings, they cannot receive these
waves
Applications
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
Infrared
Electromagnetic waves with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400
THz are called infrared rays
Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
Applications
Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a
closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
Channel Access on links
Multiple Access Techniques
Various multiple access techniques are
Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA)
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access(CDMA)

41

Frequency Division Multiple Access

f5
In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA),f4the
f3 bands.
available bandwidth is divided into frequency
f2
Each station is allocated a band to send its data.
f1
In this method when any one frequency level is kept idle
and another is used frequently leads to inefficiency.
Time Division Multiple Access
In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the stations share
the bandwidth of the channel in time.
Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can
send data.
The main problem with TDMA lies in achieving
synchronization between the different stations.
Each station needs to know the beginning of its slot and
the location of its slot.
42

 Code Division Multiple Access

CDMA differs from FDMA because only one channel occupies
the entire bandwidth of the link.
It differs from TDMA because all stations can send data at the
same time without timesharing.
CDMA simply means communication with different codes.
CDMA is based on coding theory. Each station is assigned a
code, which is a sequence of numbers called chips.
Chips will be added with the original data and it can be
transmitted through same medium.
Code c
C5
c4
c3
c2
c1
Frequency f

43

Medium Access
Some network topologies share a common medium with multiple
nodes.
At any one time, there may be a number of devices attempting to
send and receive data using the network media.
When two or more nodes are sending data at the same time, data
may be unusable due to collision.
There are rules that govern how these devices share the media to
solve the collision problem.
Here are two basic media access control methods for shared media:
Controlled - Each node has its own time to use the medium.
Network devices will take turns, in sequence, to access the medium.
One example is Token Ring.
Contention-based - All nodes compete for the use of the medium.
CSMA is usually implemented in conjunction with a method for
resolving the media contention. The two commonly used
methods are:
CSMA/CollisionDetection
CSMA/Collision Avoidance
44

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

The basic idea:
When a station has a frame to transmit:
1.
2.

Listen for Data Transmission on Cable (Carrier Sense)

When Medium is Quiet (no other station transmitting):
a) Transmit Frame, Listening for Collision
b) If collision is heard, stop transmitting, wait random time, and transmit again.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

(CSMA/CA)
. CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance) is a protocol for
carrier transmission in 802.11 networks.
. Unlike CSMA/CD which deals with transmissions after a collision has occurred,
CSMA/CA acts to prevent collisions before they happen.
. In CSMA/CA, as soon as a node receives a packet that is to be sent, it checks to be
sure the channel is clear (no other node is transmitting at the time).
. If the channel is clear, then the packet is sent. If the channel is not clear, the node
waits for a randomly chosen period of time, and then checks again to see if the
channel is clear.
. This period of time is called the backp-off factor, and is counted down by a backoff counter.

. If the channel is clear when the backoff counter reaches zero, the node
transmits the packet. If the channel is not clear when the backoff counter
reaches zero, the backoff factor is set again, and the process starts.

45

Ethernet (802.3)

The original Ethernet was developed as an experimental coaxial cable

network in the 1970s by Xerox Corporation to operate with a data rate of
3 Mbps using a carrier sense multiple access collision detection
(CSMA/CD) protocol for LANs with sporadic traffic requirements.
Success with that project attracted early attention and led to the 1980
joint development of the 10-Mbps Ethernet Version 1.0 specification by
the three-company consortium: Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel
Corporation, and Xerox Corporation.
The original IEEE 802.3 standard was based on, and was very similar to,
the Ethernet Version 1.0 specification.
Since then, a number of supplements to the standard have been defined
to take advantage of improvements in the technologies and to support
additional network media and higher data rate capabilities, plus several
new optional network access control features.
From then onwards, the term Ethernet refers to the family of local-area
network (LAN) products covered by the IEEE 802.3 standard that defines
what is commonly known as the CSMA/CD protocol. Three data rates are
currently defined for operation over optical fiber and twisted-pair cables:
10 Mbps10Base-T Ethernet
100 MbpsFast Ethernet
1000 MbpsGigabit Ethernet
46

Ethernet Architecture
Ethernet architecture can be divided into two layers:
Physical layer: this layer takes care of following
functions.

Encoding and decoding

Collision detection
Carrier sensing
Transmission and receipt

Data link layer:

Following are the major functions

Station interface
Data Encapsulation /Decapsulation
Link management
Collision Management

The Basic Ethernet Frame Format

47

 The IEEE 802.3 standard defines a basic data frame format that is
required for all MAC implementations, plus additional optional
formats that are used to extend the protocols basic capability.
The basic data frame format contains the following seven fields
Preamble (PA):
It consists of 7 bytes. The PA is an alternating pattern of ones and zeros
that tells the receiving stations that a frame is coming, and that provides
a means to syncronize the frame-reception portion of receiving physical
layers with the incoming b bit stream.

Start-of-frame delimiter (SFD):

It consists of 1 byte. The SFD is an alternating pattern of ones and zeros,
ending with two consecutive 1-bits indicating that the next bit is the leftmost byte of the destination address.

Destination address (DA):

It onsists of 6 bytes. The DA field identifies which station(s) should
receive the frame. The left-most bit in the DA field indicates whether the
address is an individual address (indicated by a 0) or a group address
(indicated by a 1).

Source addresses (SA):

It consists of 6 bytes. The SA field identifies the sending station. The SA is
always an individual address and the left-most bit in the SA field is
always 0.
48

 Length/Type:

It consists of 4 bytes. This field indicates either the number of MAC-client data
bytes that are contained in the data field of the frame, or the frame type ID if the
frame is assembled using an optional format.

Data:

It is a sequence of n bytes of any value, where n is less than or equal to 1500. If

the length of the Data field is less than 46, the Data field must be extended by
adding a filler (a pad) sufficient to bring the Data field length to 46 bytes.

Frame check sequence (FCS):

It consists of 4 bytes. This sequence contains a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check

(CRC) value, which is created by the sending MAC and is recalculated by the
receiving MAC to check for damaged frames. The FCS is generated over the DA,
SA, Length/Type, and Data fields.

Token Ring: (802.5) A Brief History

Originally, IBM developed Token Ring network in the 1970s.
It is still IBM's primary local-area network (LAN) technology.
The related IEEE 802.5 specification is almost identical to and
completely compatible with IBM's Token Ring network.
In fact, the IEEE 802.5 specification was modeled after IBM Token
Ring, and on the same lines.
The term Token Ring is generally used to refer to both IBM's Token
Ring network and IEEE 802.5 networks.
49

Introduction
Token Ring and IEEE802.5 are based on token passing MAC
protocol with ring topology.
They resolve the uncertainty by giving each station a turn on by
one.
Each node takes turns sending the data; each station may
transmit data during its turn.
The technique that coordinates this turn mechanism is called
Token passing; as a Token is passed in the network and the
station that gets the token can only transmit.
As one node transmits at a time, there is no chance of collision.
Stations are connected by point-to-point links using repeaters.
Mainly these links are of shielded twisted-pair cables.
The repeaters function in two basic modes:
Listen mode,
Transmit mode.

A disadvantage of this topology is that it is vulnerable to link or

station failure. But a few measures can be taken to take care of
it.
50

Token Ring Operation

Token-passing networks move a small frame, called a token, around
the network. Possession of the token grants the right to transmit.
If a node receiving the token has no information to send, it passes the
token to the next end station. Each station can hold the token for a
maximum period of time.
If a station possessing the token does have information to transmit, it
seizes the token, alters 1 bit of the token (which turns the token into a
start-of-frame sequence), appends the information that it wants to
transmit, and sends this information to the next station on the ring.
While the information frame is circling the ring, no token is on the
network (unless the ring supports early token release), which means
that other stations wanting to transmit must wait.
Therefore, collisions cannot occur in Token Ring networks. If early
token release is supported, a new token can be released immediately
after a frame transmission is complete.
The information frame circulates around the ring until it reaches the
intended destination station, which copies the information for further
processing.
The information frame makes a round trip and is finally removed when
it reaches the sending station.
The sending station can check the returning frame to see whether the
51
frame was seen and subsequently copied by the destination station in

Priority System
Token Ring networks use a sophisticated priority system that permits
certain user-designated, high-priority stations to use the network more
frequently.
Token Ring frames have two fields that control priority:
the priority field and
the reservation field.

Only stations with a priority equal to or higher than the priority value
contained in a token can seize that token.
After the token is seized and changed to an information frame, only
stations with a priority value higher than that of the transmitting
station can reserve the token for the next pass around the network.
When the next token is generated, it includes the higher priority of the
reserving station. Stations that raise a token's priority level must
reinstate the previous priority after their transmission is complete.
Ring Maintenance
There are two error conditions that could cause the token ring to break
down.
One is the lost token in which case there is no token the ring, the other
is the busy token that circulates endlessly.
To overcome these problems, the IEEE 802 standard specifies that one
of the stations be designated as active monitor.
52

The monitor detects the lost condition using a timer by time-out

mechanism and recovers by using a new free token.
To detect a circulating busy token, the monitor sets a monitor bit to one
on any passing busy token.
If it detects a busy token with the monitor bit already set, it implies that
the sending station has failed to remove its packet and recovers by
changing the busy token to a free token. Other stations on the ring have
the role of passive monitor.
The primary job of these stations is to detect failure of the active monitor
and assume the role of active monitor. A contention-resolution is used to
determine which station to take over.
Frame Format
Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 support two basic frame types:
tokens and
data/command frames.

Tokens are 3 bytes in length and consist of a start delimiter, an access

control byte, and an end delimiter.
Data/command frames vary in size, depending on the size of the
Information field.
Data frames carry information for upper-layer protocols, while command
frames contain control information and have no data for upper-layer
protocols.
53

Token Frame Fields

Token Frame contains three fields, each of which is 1 byte in
length:
Start delimiter (1 byte):
Alerts each station of the arrival of a token (or data/command
frame).

Access-control (1 byte):
Contains the Priority field (the most significant 3 bits) and
the Reservation field (the least significant 3 bits),
as well as a token bit (used to differentiate a token from a
data/command frame) and
a monitor bit (used by the active monitor to determine whether a
frame is circling the ring endlessly).

End delimiter (1 byte):

Signals the end of the token or data/command frame.

Data/Command Frame Fields

Data/command frames have the same three fields as Token
Frames, plus several others. The Data/command frame fields
are described below:
54

Frame-control byte (1 byte):

Indicates whether the frame contains data or control information.
In control frames, this byte specifies the type of control
information.

Destination and source addresses (2-6 bytes):

Consists of two 6-byte address fields that identify the destination
and source station addresses.

Data (up to 4500 bytes):

Indicates that the length of field is limited by the ring token
holding time, which defines the maximum time a station can hold
the token.

Frame-check sequence (FCS- 4 byte) :

Is filed by the source station with a calculated value dependent on
the frame contents. The destination station recalculates the value
to determine whether the frame was damaged in transit. If so, the
frame is discarded.

Frame Status (1 byte):

This is the terminating field of a command/data frame. The Frame
Status field includes the address-recognized indicator and framecopied indicator.
55

IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN

Fundamental to the IEEE 802.11 architecture is the concept of Basic
Service Set (BSS) or wireless LAN cell.
A BSS is defined as a group of stations that coordinate their access to
the medium under a given instance of medium access control.
The geographic area covered by a BSS is known as the Basic Service
Area (BSA), which is very similar to a cell in a cellular communication
network.
All stations with in a BSA with tens of meters in diameter may
communicate with each other directly.
The 802.11 standard support the formation of two distinct types of
BSSs:
ad hoc network and
Infrastructure BSS.

Two or more BSS's are interconnected using a Distribution System or

DS.
This concept of DS increases network coverage. Each BSS becomes a
component of an extended, larger network.
Entry to the DS is accomplished with the use of Access Points (AP).
An access point is a station, thus addressable. So data moves
between the BSS and the DS with the help of these access points. 56

Creating large and complex networks using BSS's and DS's

leads us to the next level of hierarchy, the Extended Service
Set or ESS.
The beauty of the ESS is the entire network looks like an
independent basic service set to the Logical Link Control layer
(LLC). This means that stations within the ESS can
communicate or even move between BSS's transparently to
the LLC.
The first type of BSS is known as ad hoc network, which
consists of a group of stations within the range of each other.
As its name implies, ad hoc networks are temporary in nature,
which are typically created and maintained as needed without
prior administrative arrangement. Ad hoc networks can be
formed anywhere spontaneously and can be disbanded after a
limited period of time.

57

Medium Access Control

the wireless medium presents some unique challenges not present in
wired LANs that must be dealt with by the MAC used for IEEE 802.11.
Some of the challenges are:

The wireless LAN is prone to more interference and is less reliable.

The wireless LAN is prone to unwanted interception leading to security problems.
There are so called hidden station and exposed station problems.

The Hidden Station Problem

Consider a situation when A is transmitting to B,

If C senses the media, it will not hear anything
because it is out of range, and thus will falsely
conclude that no transmission is going on and
will start transmit to B. the transmission will
interfere at B, wiping out the frame from A. The problem of a station not been
able to detect a potential competitor for the medium because the competitor is
too far away is referred as Hidden Station Problem.
Exposed Station problem
Now consider a different situation where B is transmitting to A, and C sense the
medium and detects the ongoing transmission between B and A. C falsely
conclude that it can not transmit to D, when the fact is that such transmission
would cause on problem. A transmission could cause a problem only when the
destination is in zone between B and C. This problem is referred as Exposed
station Problem. In this scenario as B is exposed to C, thats why C assumes it
cannot transmit to D. So this problem is known as Exposed station problem
58

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

(CSMA-CA)
The solution to these problems is Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Avoidance or CSMA/CA
Main steps can be summarized as:

Sender sends a short frame called Request to send RTS (20bytes)

to the destination. RTS also contains the length of the data frame.
Destination station responds with a short (14 bytes)
clear to send (CTS) frame.
After receiving the CTS, the sender starts sending the data frame.
If collision occurs, CTS frame is not received within a certain period
of time.

Framing - format of the IEEE 802.11

The frames can be categorized into three types;
management frame,
control frame and
data frame.

The management frames are used for association and

disassociation of stations with at the AP, authentication and deauthentication, and timing and synchronization.
59

Each frame consists of a MAC header, a frame body and a

frame check sequence (FCS).

Frame Body varies from 0-2312 bytes.

At last is the FCS field. The frame check sequence is a 32-bit
cyclic redundancy check which ensures there are no errors in
the frame.
The MAC header consists of seven fields and is 30 bytes long.
The fields are frame control, duration, address 1, address 2,
address 3, sequence control, and address 4.
The frame control field is 2 bytes long and is comprised of 11
subfields.

60

Frame Control Field (in MAC header)

The protocol version field is 2 bits in length and will carry the version of
the 802.11 standard. The initial value of 802.11 is 0; all other bit values
are reserved.
Type and subtype fields are 2 and 4 bits, respectively. They work together
hierarchically to determine the function of the frame.
The remaining 8 fields are all 1 bit in length.
The To DS field is set to 1 if the frame is destined for the distribution
system.
From DS field is set to 1 when frames exit the distribution system. Note
that frames which stay within their basic service set have both of these
fields set to 0.
The More Frag field is set to 1 if there is a following fragment of the
current MSDU.
Retry is set to 1 if this frame is a retransmission.
Power Management field indicates if a station is in power save mode (set
to 1) or active (set to 0).
More data field is set to 1 if there is any MSDUs are buffered for that
station.
The WEP field is set to 1 if the information in the frame body was
processed with the WEP algorithm.
The Order field is set to 1 if the frames must be strictly ordered.
61

The Duration/ID field is 2 bytes long. It contains the data on the

duration value for each field and for control frames it carries
the associated identity of the transmitting station.
The address fields identify the basic service set, the destination
address, the source address, and the receiver and transmitter
addresses. Each address field is 6 bytes long.
The sequence control field is 2 bytes and is split into 2
subfields, fragment number and sequence number.
Fragment number is 4 bits and tells how many fragments the
MSDU is broken into.
The sequence number field is 12 bits that indicates the
sequence number of the MSDU. The frame body is a variable
length field from 0 - 2312. This is the payload.

62

FDDI ( Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

FDDI is similar to 802.5 and IBM Token Rings but it uses optical
fiber cable instead of copper cables.
Physical Properties

Unlike 802.5 networks, an FDDI network consists of a dual ringtwo

independent rings that transmit data in opposite directions.
The second ring is not used during normal operation but instead comes
into
play only if the primary ring fails. That is, the ring loops back on
the secondary fiber to form a complete ring, and as a consequence, an
FDDI network is able to tolerate a single break in the cable or the failure
of one station.
Because of the expense of the dual-ring configuration, FDDI allows nodes
to attach to the network by means of a single cable. Such nodes are
called single attachment stations (SAS); their dual-connected
counterparts are called, not surprisingly, dual attachment stations
(DAS).Should this SAS fail, the concentrator detects this situation and
uses an optical bypass to isolate the failed SAS, thereby keeping the ring
connected.

63

FDDI has other physical characteristics

at most 500 stations.
maximum distance of 2 km between any pair of stations .
Overall, the network is limited to a total of 200 km of fiber, which
means
that, because of the dual nature of the ring, the total amount of cable
connecting all
stations is limited to 100 km.
FDDI uses 4B/5B encoding.
Token Maintenance
First, all nodes on an FDDI ring monitor the ring to be sure that the
token has not been lost.
Observe that in a correctly functioning ring, each node should see a
valid transmissioneither a data frame or the tokenevery so often.
The greatest idle time between valid transmissions that a given node
should experience is equal to the ring latency plus the time it takes to
transmit a full frame, which on a maximally sized ring is a little less
than 2.5 ms.
Therefore, each node sets a timer event that fires after 2.5 ms. If this
timer expires, the node suspects that something has gone wrong and
transmits a claim frame.
64

 The claim frames in FDDI differ from those in 802.5 because they
contain the nodes bid for the TTRT, that is, the token rotation
time that the node needs so that the applications running on the
node can meet their timing constraints.
If this claim frame makes it all the way around the ring, then the
sender removes it, knowing that its TTRT bid was the lowest.
That node now holds the tokenthat is, it is responsible for
inserting a valid token on the ringand may proceed with the
normal token algorithm.
When a node receives a claim frame, it checks to see if the TTRT
bid in the frame is less than its own. If it is, then the node resets
its local definition of the TTRT to that contained in the claim
frame and forwards the frame to the next node.

If the bid TTRT is greater than that nodes minimum required

TTRT, then the claim frame is removed from the ring and the
node enters the bidding process by putting its own claim frame
on the ring.
Should the bid TTRT be equal to the nodes required TTRT, the
node compares the address of the claim frames sender with its
own and the higher address wins.
65
Frame Format: