BIOLOGY

TENTH EDITION

Global Edition

A Global Approach

Campbell Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson

Topic 3 (part 1)
Cell
Biology
Cell Structure and Function
Topic 3 Cell Biology
Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
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Learning outcomes
1.
2.

Describe the methods that biologists use to study cells

including light/dark microscopy and centrifugation.
Outline functions, describe and interpret drawings and
photographs of typical animal and plant cells as seen
under electron microscope, recognising the following
membrane systems and organelles - rough & smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, mitochondria,
ribosomes, lysosomes, chloroplasts, cell surface
membrane, nuclear envelope, centrioles,
peroxisomes, nucleus & nucleolus.

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Learning outcomes
3.

4.

Describe organelles that are involved in synthesis of

biological molecules and trace the path of protein
as they are processed, modified, sorted, & transported
to specific destination.
Describe structure & function of cytoskeleton.

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The Fundamental Units of Life

a) All organisms are made of cells

b) The cell is the simplest collection of matter
that can be alive
c) All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells
d) Cells can differ substantially from one another but
share common features

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10 m

0.1 m
1 cm

100 m
10 m
1 m
100 nm
10 nm
1 nm
0.1 nm

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Frog egg
Human egg
Most plant and
animal cells
Nucleus
Most bacteria
Mitochondrion

EM

1 mm

a) Cells are usually too

small to be seen by the
naked eye

Length of some
nerve and
muscle cells
Chicken egg

LM

1m

Human height

Unaided eye

Concept 6.1: Biologists use

microscopes and the tools
of biochemistry to study
cells

Smallest bacteria
Viruses
Ribosomes
Proteins
Lipids
Small molecules
Atoms

Superresolution
microscopy

Microscopy

a) Microscopes are used to visualize cells

b) In a light microscope (LM), visible light is passed
through a specimen and then through glass lenses
c) Lenses refract (bend) the light, so that the image is
magnified

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a) Three important parameters of microscopy

a)Magnification, the ratio of an objects image
size to its real size
b)Resolution, the measure of the clarity of the image, or
the minimum distance of two distinguishable points
c)Contrast, visible differences in brightness between
parts of the sample

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1
Magnify

Magnify
Resolve
2

Resolve
From Lab manual
Where would you place the labels, Magnify &
Resolve?
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Light microscopes

a) Can magnify effectively to about 1,000 times the size

of the actual specimen
b) Various techniques enhance contrast and enable cell
components to be stained or labeled
c) The resolution of standard light microscopy is too low
to study organelles, the membrane-enclosed
structures in eukaryotic cells

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Figure 6.3

Brightfield
(stained specimen)

50 m

Phase-contrast

Differentialinterference-contrast
(Nomarski)

Fluorescence

10 m

Confocal (without)

10 m

50 m

Brightfield
(unstained
specimen)

Confocal (with)

Super-resolution
(without)
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Super-resolution
(with)

1 m

Deconvolution

Scanning
2 m
electron
microscopy (SEM)

Transmission
2 m
electron
microscopy (TEM)

a) Two basic types of electron microscopes (EMs) are

used to study subcellular structures
b) Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) focus a
beam of electrons onto the surface of a specimen,
providing images that look 3-D
c) Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) focus a
beam of electrons through a specimen
d) TEMs are used mainly to study the internal structure
of cells

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Which is TEM or SEM? Why?

Becker (2002)

TEM
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SEM

Light microscope

Electron microscope

Which picture is that of:

a) A light microscope with lower resolution: points appear fused (hence,
fuzzy image).
b) An electron microscope (see later section on EM) with higher resolution:
points appear separate, (hence, sharper picture).
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Cell struct NJ 2005

Cell Fractionation

a) Cell fractionation takes cells apart and

separates the major organelles from one another
b) Centrifuges fractionate cells into their
component parts
c) Cell fractionation enables scientists to determine the
functions of organelles
d) Biochemistry and cytology help correlate cell function
with structure

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Figure 6.4a

Homogenization
Tissue
cells

Homogenate

Centrifugation

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Figure 6.4b

1,000 g
10 min

Supernatant poured into next tube

20,000 g
20 min

Pellet rich in
nuclei and
cellular debris

80,000 g
60 min
150,000 g
3 hr

Pellet rich in
mitochondria
and chloroplasts
Differential
centrifugation
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Pellet rich in
microsomes

Pellet rich in
ribosomes

Concept 6.2: Eukaryotic cells have

internal membranes that compartmentalize
their functions
a) The basic structural and functional unit of every
organism is one of two types of cells: prokaryotic or
eukaryotic
b) Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea
consist of prokaryotic cells
c) Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of
eukaryotic cells

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Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

a) Basic features of all cells

a)Plasma membrane
b)Semifluid substance called cytosol
c)Chromosomes (carry genes)
d)Ribosomes (make proteins)

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a) Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having

a)No nucleus
b)DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
c)No membrane-bound organelles
d)Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane

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Figure 6.5

Fimbriae
Nucleoid
Ribosomes
Plasma membrane
Cell wall
Bacterial
chromosome

Capsule
0.5 m

(a) A typical
rod-shaped
bacterium

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Flagella

(b) A thin section through

the bacterium Bacillus
coagulans (TEM)

a) Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having

a)DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous
nuclear envelope
b)Membrane-bound organelles
c)Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma
membrane and nucleus

b) Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than

prokaryotic cells

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Figure 6.6

Plasma membrane
Selective barrier
Allow sufficient passage of oxygen,
nutrients, and waste to service the
volume of every cell
A double layer of phospholipids

Outside of cell

Inside
0.1 m
(a)
of cell
TEM of a plasma membrane

Carbohydrate side chains

Hydrophilic
region

Hydrophobic
region
Hydrophilic
region

Phospholipid

Proteins

(b) Structure of the plasma membrane

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A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell

Animal Cells

5 m

10 m

Plant Cells
Cell
Cell wall
Chloroplast

Cell

Mitochondrion
Nucleus

Nucleus

Nucleolus

Nucleolus
Human cells from lining
of uterus (colorized TEM)

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Cells from duckweed

(colorized TEM)

Figure 6.8a

ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM (ER)
Rough ER Smooth ER
Flagellum

Nuclear
envelope
Nucleolus NUCLEUS
Chromatin

Centrosome

Plasma
membrane

CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Ribosomes
Microvilli
Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
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Lysosome

Figure 6.8b

Nuclear
envelope
NUCLEUS
Nucleolus
Chromatin

Rough ER
Smooth ER

Ribosomes
Golgi
apparatus

Central vacuole
Microfilaments
Microtubules

Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Chloroplast

Plasma
membrane
Cell wall
Wall of adjacent cell
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Plasmodesmata

CYTOSKELETON

Concept 6.3: The eukaryotic cells genetic instructions

are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the
ribosomes
a) The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic
cell
b) Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make
proteins

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The Nucleus: Information Central

a) The nucleus contains most of the cells genes and is
usually the most conspicuous organelle
b) The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus,
separating it from the cytoplasm
c) The nuclear membrane is a double membrane; each
membrane consists of a lipid bilayer
d) Pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules from
the nucleus
e) The nuclear size of the envelop is lined by the
nuclear lamina, which is composed of proteins and
maintains the shape of the nucleus
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a) In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units

called chromosomes
b) Each chromosome is composed of a single DNA
molecule associated with proteins
c) The DNA and proteins of chromosomes are together
called chromatin
d) Chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes
as a cell prepares to divide
e) The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is the
site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
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Figure 6.9

Nucleus

1 m

Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore

Surface of
nuclear envelope
(TEM)

Rough
ER

Pore
complex
Ribosome

Pore complexes (TEM)

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Chromatin

0.5 m

0.25 m

Close-up
of nuclear
envelope

Nuclear lamina (TEM)

Ribosomes: Protein Factories

a) Ribosomes are complexes made of ribosomal RNA

and protein
b) Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two
locations
a)In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
b)On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the
nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

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Figure 6.10

0.25 m
Ribosomes

Free ribosomes in cytosol

Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)

ER

Ribosomes bound to ER
Large
subunit
Small
subunit
TEM showing ER
and ribosomes

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Diagram of a
ribosome

Computer model
of a ribosome

Concept 6.4: The endomembrane system regulates

protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the
cell
a) The endomembrane system consists of
a)Nuclear envelope
b)Endoplasmic reticulum
c)Golgi apparatus
d)Lysosomes
e)Vacuoles
f) Plasma membrane

b) These components are either continuous or connected

via transfer by vesicles

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The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory

a) The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more

than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic
cells
b) The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear
envelope
c) There are two distinct regions of ER
a)Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
b)Rough ER, whose surface is studded with ribosomes

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Figure 6.11

Smooth ER
Rough ER

ER lumen
Cisternae
Ribosomes
Transport vesicle

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Nuclear
envelope

Transitional
ER

Smooth ER

Rough ER

0.20 m

What is this organelle?

Smooth ER

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Functions of Smooth ER

a) The smooth ER
a)Synthesizes lipids
b)Metabolizes carbohydrates
c)Detoxifies drugs and poisons
d)Stores calcium ions

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What
are the structures
in red for?
Protein
Synthesis

Rough ER)

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(by

Functions of Rough ER

a) The rough ER
a)Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins
(proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates)
b)Distributes transport vesicles, secretory proteins
surrounded by membranes
c)Is a membrane factory for the cell

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The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and

Receiving Center
a) The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened
membranous sacs called cisternae
b) Functions of the Golgi apparatus
a)Modifies products of the ER
b)Manufactures certain macromolecules
c)Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

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Figure 6.12

Golgi
apparatus
cis face
(receiving side of
Golgi apparatus)

0.1 m
Cisternae

trans face
(shipping side of
Golgi apparatus)
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TEM of Golgi apparatus

Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

a) A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic

enzymes that can digest macromolecules
b) Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic
environment inside the lysosome
c) Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes are
made by rough ER and then transferred to the Golgi
apparatus for further processing

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a) Some types of cell can engulf another cell by

phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole
b) A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests
the molecules
c) Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the
cells own organelles and macromolecules,
a process called autophagy

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Figure 6.13

Vesicle containing
two damaged
organelles

1 m

Nucleus

1 m

Mitochondrion
fragment
Peroxisome
fragment
Lysosome
Digestive
enzymes

Lysosome
Lysosome

Plasma
membrane

Peroxisome
Digestion
Food
vacuole

(a) Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food

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Mitochondrion
Vesicle

Digestion

(b) Autophagy: lysosome breaking down

damaged organelles

Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments

a) A plant cell or fungal cell has one or several vacuoles
b) Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the ER and
Golgi apparatus
c) Vacuoles perform a variety of functions in different kinds of
cells
1.Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
2.Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater
protists, pump excess water out of cells
3.Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells,
hold organic compounds and water

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Figure 6.14

Central vacuole

Cytosol

Nucleus

Central
vacuole

Cell wall
Chloroplast
5 m

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The Endomembrane System: A Review

Nucleus

Rough ER
Smooth ER

cis Golgi

trans Golgi
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Plasma
membrane

Concept 6.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts change

energy from one form to another
a) Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a
metabolic process that uses oxygen to
generate ATP
b) Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the sites
of photosynthesis
c) Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles

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The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria and

Chloroplasts
a) Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with
bacteria
a)Enveloped by a double membrane
b)Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
c)Grow and reproduce somewhat independently
in cells

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Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion

a) Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells

b) They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner
membrane folded into cristae
c) The inner membrane creates two compartments:
intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix
d) Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are
catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix
e) Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that
synthesize ATP
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Figure 6.17

Mitochondrion
Mitochondria

Intermembrane
space
Outer
membrane

Free
ribosomes
in the
mitochondrial
matrix

DNA
Inner
membrane

(a) Diagram and TEM of mitochondrion

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Mitochondrial
DNA

Cristae
Matrix

10 m

Nuclear DNA
0.1 m
(b) Network of mitochondria in
Euglena (LM)

Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy

a) Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll,
as well as enzymes and other molecules that function
in photosynthesis
b) Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green
organs of plants and in algae
c) Chloroplast structure includes
a)Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a
granum
b)Stroma, the internal fluid

d) The chloroplast is one of a group of plant organelles,

called plastids
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Figure 6.18

Chloroplast

Ribosomes

50 m

Stroma
Inner
and outer
membranes
Granum

Thylakoid

DNA
Intermembrane space

(a) Diagram and TEM of chloroplast

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Chloroplasts
(red)
1 m
(b) Chloroplasts in an
algal cell

Peroxisomes: Oxidation

a) Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic

compartments bounded by a single membrane
b) Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and convert
it to water
c) Peroxisomes perform reactions with many different
functions
d) How peroxisomes are related to other organelles is
still unknown

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Figure 6.19

Peroxisome
Mitochondrion

Chloroplasts
1 m

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Concept 6.6: The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers

that organizes structures and activities in the cell
a) A network of fibers extending throughout the
cytoplasm
b) Organize the cells structures and activities, anchoring
many organelles
c) Three types

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10 m

a)Microtubules
b)Microfilaments
c)Intermediate filaments

Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support and Motility

a) Support the cell and maintain its shape

b) Interact with motor proteins to produce motility
c) Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along tracks
provided by the cytoskeleton

d)May help regulate biochemical activities

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Figure 6.21

ATP

Vesicle
Receptor for
motor protein

Motor protein Microtubule

(ATP powered) of cytoskeleton
(a) Motor proteins walk vesicles along cytoskeletal
fibers.
Microtubule

Vesicles

(b) SEM of a squid giant axon

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0.25 m

Table 6.1b

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Table 6.1d

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Table 6.1c

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Microtubules

a) Hollow rods
) ~ 25 nm in diameter
) ~ 200 nm to 25 microns long

b) Functions of microtubules
a)Shaping the cell
b)Guiding movement of organelles
c)Separating chromosomes during cell division

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Centrosomes and Centrioles

a) In animal cells, microtubules grow out from a
centrosome near the nucleus
b) In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of
centrioles, each with nine triplets of microtubules
arranged in a ring

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Figure 6.22

Centrosome

Microtubule
Centrioles
0.25 m

Longitudinal
section of one
centriole
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Microtubules

Cross section
of the other centriole

Concept 6.7: Extracellular components and

connections between cells help coordinate cellular
activities
a) Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are
external to the plasma membrane

b)These extracellular structures include

1.Cell walls of plants
2.The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
3.Intercellular junctions

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Cell Walls of Plants

a) an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells

from animal cells
b) Prokaryotes, fungi, and some unicellular eukaryotes
also have cell walls
c) The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its
shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water
d) Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers
embedded in other polysaccharides and protein

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a) Plant cell walls may have multiple layers

a)Primary cell wall: Relatively thin and flexible
b)Middle lamella: Thin layer between primary walls of
adjacent cells
c)Secondary cell wall (in some cells): Added between
the plasma membrane and the primary
cell wall

b) Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent plant

cells

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Figure 6.27

Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall
Middle
lamella

Central vacuole

1 m

Cytosol
Plasma membrane
Plant cell walls

Plasmodesmata
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The Cell: A Living Unit Greater Than the Sum of Its

Parts
a) Cells rely on the integration of structures and
organelles in order to function
b) For example, a macrophages ability to destroy
bacteria involves the whole cell, coordinating
components such as the cytoskeleton, lysosomes,
and plasma membrane

5 m
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Figure 6.UN03

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Figure 6.UN04

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Figure 6.UN05

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