Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

d Mechanics = Fluid + Statics + Kinematics + Dynamics

Analytical Fluid Dynamics (AFD)Experimental FD (EFD)Computational FD (CFD)

U 0
DU
1 2
p
U ui u j
Dt
Re

Fluid Mechanics
Fluids essential to life
Human body 65% water
Earths surface is 2/3 water
Atmosphere extends 17km above the earths
surface

History shaped by fluid mechanics

Geomorphology
Human migration and civilization
Modern scientific and mathematical theories
and methods
Warfare

Affects every part of our lives

History
Faces of Fluid Mechanics

Archimedes
(C. 287-212
BC)

Navier
(1785-1836)

Newton

Leibniz

Bernoulli

Euler

(1642-1727)

(1646-1716)

(1667-1748)

(1707-1783)

Prandtl

Taylor

Stokes
(1819-1903)

Reynolds
(1842-1912)

(1875-1953)
3

(1886-1975)

Significance
Fluids omnipresent
Weather & climate
Vehicles: automobiles, trains, ships,
and planes, etc.
Environment
Physiology and medicine
Sports & recreation
Many other examples!

Weather & Climate

Tornadoes

Global Climate

Thunderstorm

Hurricanes

Vehicles
Aircraft

High-speed rail

Surface ships

Submarines

Environment
River hydraulics

Air pollution

Physiology and Medicine

Blood pump

Ventricular assist device

Sports & Recreation

Water sports

Auto
racing

Cycling

Offshore racing

Surfing

Wind Farm (Maharastra)

Fluid Mechanics is beautiful

Questions you should ask ?

How aircrafts fly: Lift and Thrust
How oil and water is pumped in hydraulic
pipelines and turbines
Floating
mechanism
of
ships,
boats,
submarines and marine structure stability of
floating
swimming patterns of marine animals, flying
pattern of birds, aerodynamic of certain
mammals etc.
aerodynamics of a tennis ball, cricket ball
Dams, canals etc.

Definition of Stress
Consider a small area A on the surface of a body (Fig. 1.1).
The force acting on this area is F. This force can be
resolved into two perpendicular components
The component of force acting normal to the area called
normal force and is denoted by Fn
Thecomponent of force acting along the plane of area is
called tangential force and is denoted by Ft

Fig. 1.1 Normal and Tangential Forces on a surface

Definition of Stress
When they are expressed as force per unit area they are called
as normal stress and tangential stress respectively. The
tangential stress is also called shear stress
The normal stress

And shear stress

Definition of Fluid
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously in the
face of tangential or shear stress, irrespective of the
magnitude of shear stress. This continuous deformation
under the application of shear stress constitutes a flow.
In this connection fluid can also be defined as the state of
matter that cannot sustain any shear stress.

Fig 1.2 Shear stress on a fluid body

 If a shear stress is applied at any location in a fluid, the

element 011' which is initially at rest, will move to 022', then
to 033'. Further, it moves to 044' and continues to move in a
similar fashion.
In other words, the tangential stress in a fluid body
depends on velocity of deformation and vanishes as
this velocity approaches zero. A good example is
Newton's parallel plate experiment
where
dependence of shear force on the velocity of
deformation was established.

tinction Between Solid and Fluid

Solid

Fluid

More Compact Structure

Less Compact Structure

Attractive Forces between the

molecules
are larger therefore more closely
packed

Attractive Forces between the

molecules
are
smaller
therefore
more
loosely packed

Solids
can
resist
tangential Fluids cannot resist tangential
stresses in static condition
stresses in static condition
Whenever a solid is subjected to Whenever a fluid is subjected to
shear stress
shear stress
It
No fixed deformation
undergoes
a
definite
deformation or breaks
Continious
deformation
is proportional to shear
takes place until the shear
stress upto some limiting
stress is applied
condition
Solid may regain partly or fully its A fluid can never regain its
original
shape
when
the original shape, once it has been
tangential stress is removed
distorted by the shear stress

tinction Between Solid and Fluid

Fig 1.3 Deformation of a Solid Body

ess-Strain relation in solids

Illustration of a parallel plate
testing device for determining the
response of materials to an
applied shear stress.
(A) The sample in its original
form just prior to the
application of the tangential
force, F.
(B) The response of a solid
sample to the application of
the shear stress, (=F/A). The
solid deforms by an amount
x almost immediately upon
the application of the shear
stress and then remains
stationary in that position
throughout the duration of the
applied stress.

tinction Between Solid and Fluid

As shown in Figure, for a shear stress below the elastic limit, the
relationship between shear stress , and shear strain in a solid
is:

The shear strain is defined as the displacement in the direction

of the applied force, x, normalized by the height of the solid
(perpendicular to the applied force), y, i.e.,
= x / y.
The proportionality between and can be converted to an
equality by inserting a constant, G, known as the shear
modulus of the solid. Thus we can write the relationship as:

tinction Between Solid and Fluid

Since the shear modulus of steel is about three times that of
aluminum (12106 vs 3.8106 psi), above equation tells us
that if similar blocks of steel and aluminum were subjected to
the same shear stress, the displacement in the aluminum
block would be more than three times as large as that in the
steel block.
That is, steel is stiffer (experiences less deflection per unit
stress) than aluminum.

ress-Strain relation in fluids

(A) When a fluid is tested
in the device described in
Figure the displacement x
and
the
corresponding
shear strain increase
linearly with time. For a
fluid,
the
relationship
between shear stress and
shear strain is

d/dt.
(B) In this situation, the
fluid velocity in the x
direction, u, is a function of
the y coordinate. That is,
u(y) varies linearly from 0
at the bottom plate to U0 at
the top
plate.
Note
that
u(y)=d(x)/dt. This result is
used in the text to show
that d/dt=du/dy; i.e., the
shear rate and velocity

omparison of Solids, Liquids, and Gases

Problem 1
Imagine applying a shear stress to a puddle of
water with your hand. Suppose the water puddle is
initially 2 mm thick and that the viscosity of water
is 0.001 kg/(m-s). If your hand is applying a shear
stress of magnitude 0.05 kg/(m-s2), calculate the
shear strain rate and velocity gradient in the fluid,
and the speed u at which your hand is moving.

tinction Between Solid and Fluid

Because the velocity profile is linear

across the gap in the shear flow
between parallel plates, the velocity
gradient du/dy is constant, and above
equation tells us that the shear stress
is uniform in the region between the
plates.

Numerical
Question 1. Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is
used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m
and an inclined plane with angle of inclination 30. The weight of
the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the inclined plane with
a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm.

Answer: - 1.17 Ns/m2

(11.7 Poise)

Numerical
Question 2. If the velocity profile of a fluid over a plate is
Parabolic with the vertex 20 cm from the plate, where the velocity
is 120 cm/sec. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses
at a distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, if the viscosity of
the fluid is 8.5 poise.

Answer: u = 0.3y2 + 12y

(a) 12/sec, 10.193 N/m2
(b) 6/sec, 5.097 N/m2
(c) 0, 0

Numerical
Question 3. Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm
diameter when the inside pressure is 2.5 N/m2 above atmospheric
pressure.

Answer: 0.0125 N/m

Numerical
Question 4. The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for a lubrication
Between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m
and rotates at 190 r.p.m. Calculate the horse power lost in the bearing
for a sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm.

Answer: - 0.97 H.P.

Numerical

Question 5. A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contains

a fluid of viscosity 2.0 Ns/m2 and specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate
1.2m x 1.2m x 0.2cm is to be lifted with a constant velocity of
0.15 m/sec, through the gap. If the plate is in the middle of the gap,
find the force required. The weight of the plate is 40 N.

Answer: 100.97 N

 The abscissa in Fig. represents the

behaviour of ideal fluids since for
the ideal fluids the resistance to
shearing
deformation
rate
is
always zero, and hence they
exhibit zero shear stress under any
condition of flow.
The ordinate represents the ideal
solid for there is no deformation
rate under any loading condition.
The Newtonian fluids behave
according to the law that shear
stress is linearly proportional to
velocity gradient or rate of shear
strain . Thus for these fluids, the
plot of shear stress against velocity
gradient is a straight line through
the origin. The slope of the line
determines the viscosity.
The non-Newtonian fluids are

Ideal solid

Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

Ideal fluid
Shear stress and deformation
rate relationship of different
fluids

tinction Between Gas and Fluid

Differences in the compressibility of liquids and gases.

(A)The molecular spacing between liquid molecules is not changed
appreciably when a weight is applied to the piston.
(B)In contrast, the same weight on the piston will cause a significant
change (decrease) in the spacing between gas molecules.

tinction Between Gas and Fluid

Differences in characteristics of liquids and gases.

(A)A liquid takes the shape of its container but retains a
constant volume. Note that a liquid is capable of forming an
interface with its vapor that is not associated with a
container boundary.
(B)In contrast, a gas not only takes the shape of its container
but expands or contracts to completely fill a container of any
shape. Gases do not form interfaces other than those
associated with the container boundaries.

Methods of fluid description

Continuum Hypothesis
Non-continuum Descriptions
Molecular Description

Continuum Hypothesis
Suppose you are given the assignment to
predict the fluid velocity distribution created by
stirring a glass of water with a spoon.
How would you propose to model the fluid in
this situation?
One approach might be to attack the problem
on a molecular level by using your
understanding of dynamics and modern
physics to model the water molecules as
interacting hard spheres with a known
intermolecular force field.
Good luck! A typical glass of water contains on
the order of 1026 water molecules.
Even with the help of a powerful computer,
tracking such a large number of objects is
impossible, at least in the foreseeable future.

Continuum Hypothesis
An alternate approach to model the water in the
glass, or any fluid in general, is to consider all
macroscopic properties at a point in a fluid as
averages of molecular characteristics in a small
region about that point.
In this approach we assume that a fluid may be
treated as a continuous substance or continuum,
rather than as a group of discrete molecules.
Therefore, this concept is called the continuum
hypothesis.

Continuum Hypothesis

Statistically a sampling volume that contains

10,000 molecules results in 1% statistical
fluctuations in the averaged quantities

Continuum Hypothesis
The acceptable size of the unit volume for many liquids and gases is
about 1m3.
Over this value, the medium can be accepted as continuum , such
that the variations in space and time can be accepted to be smooth
and differential equations can be written to describe the fluid
motion.
If, however, the chosen unit volume is too large, there could be a
noticeable variation within the selected volume owing to the nonuniform bulk distribution of molecules caused by temperature and/or
pressure variations in the flow field.
The continuum hypothesis is basically an approximation, in the
same way planets are approximated by point particles when dealing
with celestial mechanics, and therefore results in approximate
solutions.
Consequently, assumption of the continuum hypothesis can lead to
results which are not of desired accuracy.
Continuuum hypothesis suffers in rarefied gas flows and gas flows in
micro and nano geometries.
Having said that, under the right circumstances, the continuum
hypothesis produces extremely accurate results. Those problems for

Continuum Hypothesis
How do we know if a continuum model is valid for a specific
application?
Continuum models of fluid mechanics have been applied to an
extraordinarily wide range of problems with excellent results, so
there is little doubt of the general validity of this approach.
Does the molecular structure of a fluid ever become important
and perhaps cause a breakdown in the continuum theory?
The answer to this question is yes: the continuum theory is in
jeopardy when the length scale of a physical phenomenon or
object exposed to a fluid is of the same order as molecular
dimensions.
In a problem involving a gas, for example, the largest molecular
dimension of practical importance is the mean free path of gas
molecules, which is inversely proportional to the density of the
gas.

Continuum Hypothesis
The mean free path in air is approximately 107 m (0.1nm) at
standard conditions.
Is a continuum model appropriate to describe the flow of gas in 0.5
nm pores of a filter media?
Since the pore diameter is approximately five times the mean free
path, we should be cautious in using results based on the
continuum hypothesis in this application.

Concept of Continuum
One of the factors considered important in determining the validity
of continuum model is molecular density.
It is the distance between the molecules which is characterised by
mean free path ().
It is calculated by finding statistical average distance the molecules
travel between two successive collisions.
If the mean free path is very small as compared with some
characteristic length in the flow domain (i.e., the molecular density
is very high) then the gas can be treated as a continuous medium.
If the mean free path is large in comparison to some characteristic
length, the gas cannot be considered continuous and it should be
analysed by the molecular theory.
A dimensionless parameter known as
Knudsen number, Kn = / L,
where is the mean free path and L is the characteristic length. It
describes the degree of departure from continuum.

Concept of Continuum
Usually when Kn> 0.01, the concept of continuum does not hold good.
Beyond this critical range of Knudsen number, the flows are
known as

slip flow (0.01 < K n < 0.1),

transition flow (0.1 < K n < 10) and

free-molecule flow (Kn > 10).

However, for the flow regimes considered in this course , K n is always

less than 0.01 and it is usual to say that the fluid is a continuum.
Other factor which checks the validity of continuum is the elapsed
time between collisions. The time should be small enough so that the
random statistical description of molecular activity holds good.
In continuum approach, fluid properties such as density, viscosity,
thermal conductivity, temperature, etc. can be expressed as
continuous functions of space and time.

Problem 3
In each of the following situations, would you feel comfortable using
the continuum hypothesis in your analysis of the fluid flow? For any
doubtful cases, list the additional
information you would like to obtain before feeling confident of your
decision.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Flow of gas at very low pressure through an orifice.

Calculating the shear stress in a lubricant layer 1 nm thick.
Modeling the flow of blood in the smallest capillaries.
Airflow over a passenger plane at normal altitude.
Respiration of insects through tubes connected to pores on their
bodies.

Fluid properties

Property: Any characteristic of a

system.
Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T,
volume V, and mass m.
Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size
or extentof the system.

Mass, weight, and density

The mass of an object is defined as a measure of its resistance to
acceleration, i.e., resistance to a change in velocity. For an object
of fixed mass, the relationship between acceleration, a, force, F,
and mass, M, is given by Newtons second law:

The weight of an object, W, is the magnitude of the force acting

on the object due to Earths gravity field.

Fluids differ in their resistance to acceleration in proportion to

their density. The density of a fluid, , may be determined by
dividing the mass of a sample of that fluid by its volume V

Mass, weight, and density

The reciprocal of density is called specific volume, :

As a thermodynamic property of a fluid, density has a certain

numerical value defined by the pressure and temperature of the
fluid. This relationship is expressed by an equation of state.
Since pressure and temperature are generally functions of
position and time in a flow, density must also be a function of
position and time.
Thus density, pressure, and temperature are flow properties.

Transonic flow past a

thin
wedged
plate
visualized
with
the
Schlieren method. The
lines preceding and
trailing the flow are
shock waves, which are
a discontinuity in flow
variables
such
as
pressure, density, and
pressure.

The heated glass creates a

plume of low density fluid
that
rises
through
the
relatively colder surrounding
air.

Mirage: the magic of density difference

A mirage is an image that looks real but is not really there. It is

caused by layers of air being at different temperatures (or density)
and thicknesses. The differences in the layers of air can bend light.
This bending, known as refraction, creates false images that people
often believe truly exist.

essure Variation in a Stationary Fluid

The deeper you swim or dive, the greater the
water pressure, and attendant ear pain.

Force balance in
the
vertical
direction
for
a
cylindrical column
of constant density
fluid.
The key result is
that
p=gd

Manometer Readings
A manometer is a liquid-filled device used to measure pressure.
By changing the liquid from water to mercury, a manometer of
reasonable size may be used to read higher pressures.

A U-tube manometer can

be used to measure
pressure differences by
recording the difference
in the height of the fluid
levels in the two legs of
the device.
In this example h=10
in.

Temperature as a function of elevation for the U.S. Standard

Atmosphere.

Heavy or Light fluid

In fluid mechanics, heavy or light serves to compare the
density of one fluid with respect to another.
Mercury is heavier than water, water is heavier than oil,
seawater is heavier than fresh water, cold air is heavier than hot
air.
When two immiscible liquids, such as oil and vinegar, are poured
simultaneously into the same container, the lighter liquid will
eventually settle on top of the heavier liquid.
A practical application of this concept is a solar pond.
In a solar pond, most of the
thermal energy from the sun
passes through the water and is
absorbed by the solid layer
below. The warm solid raises the
temperature of the adjacent salt
water, and the fresh water
insulates the heated salt water
from
the
atmosphere.
The
thermal energy trapped in the
salt water can be extracted via a
piping system and used for
space heating.

Influence of Molecular Weight on Fluid

Density at STP

The density of a gas at a given pressure and temperature is

proportional to its molecular weight

Specific Gravity
If you work for an international corporation and your product
list contains dozens of different fluids, you will have a
significant number of density values at STP to deal with, and
these may be given in a number of different units.
Placed in this situation, you might want to use a dimensionless,
and therefore unitless, measure of density.
This fluid property, known as specific gravity, sg, is defined as
the ratio of a fluids density to that of a standard reference fluid
(water for liquids, air for gases) at STP.
Thus, for gases, we define the specific gravity as

while for liquids, we write

Pressure
All fluids are composed of energetic molecules in motion. When
these molecules collide with a surface, they exert a normal and
tangential force on the surface due to the change in momentum of
colliding molecules.
The normal force exists in fluids at rest and in motion, whereas
tangential (shearing) forces exist only for fluids in motion.
Liquids and gases are unable to exert tensile stresses. Thus the
normal force exerted by a fluid on a surface is always compressive;
i.e., it is directed into the surface.
A

Fluids exert a compressive force on any surface they contact. (A) A fluid exerting
a force normal to a solid surface. (B) A fluid exerting a compressive force on an
imaginary interior surface.

Pressure
The pressure p on a planar surface is defined as the
compressive normal force applied by the fluid to the surface,
FN, divided by the area of that surface, A. Thus we write

The pressure defined above is an absolute pressure, which may

take any positive value.
Absolute pressure is defined and measured in reference to a
perfect vacuum.
The pressure employed in an equation of state is always an
absolute pressure.
Most pressure measurements, however, are made by
comparing the unknown pressure to an ambient pressure. This
results in a reading of what is referred to as the gage pressure.
The gage then responds to the difference in the two pressures.

ressure: Absolute, Gage, Atmospheric

At sea-level, the international standard atmosphere

has been chosen as Patm = 101.32 kN/m2 = 1 bar

Buoyancy and Archimedes

Principle
The increase in hydrostatic pressure with depth in a fluid creates
a net force on an immersed object.
The net vertical force acting on an object due to hydrostatic
pressure is called the buoyancy force.

Hot air balloon: (A) photograph and (B) schematic, indicating that the net
force on the balloon is calculated as the difference between the gravitational
force and the buoyancy force, i.e., FN=FGFB.

Buoyancy
Principle

and

Archimedes

Archimedes principle states that a buoyancy force, F buoyancy, acts

in the direction opposite to that of the gravitational force, F gravity,
and has a magnitude equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
The buoyancy force arises because the increase in hydrostatic
pressure with depth creates a net upward hydrostatic force on the
surface of the object.

Note that a positive value of Fnet represents a net force in the

direction of the gravitational field.
A negative value implies that the object is being pushed
upward in the opposite direction.
This principle may be used to estimate the buoyancy force
acting on a heated volume of fluid immersed in similar fluid.
In this case, the buoyancy force is the difference in the weight
of the volume of hot fluid and the weight of an equal volume
of the surrounding colder fluid.

Example
Suppose
a
thin
plastic
bag
containing 200 cm3 of hot water at
90C is held submerged in a tank of
cold water at 20C. Calculate the
net force acting on the bag of fluid.
Is the force pushing the bag up or
down?
What is the buoyancy force acting
on the bag?
Assume density of hot water at
90oC = 965 kg/m3 and at 20o C =
1000 kg/m3

ulk Modulus and Compressibility

When a fluid is subjected to a pressure increase, the volume
decreases, and the density increases.
For many fluids the pressurevolume relationship is linear and may
be characterized by a proportionality constant called the bulk
compressibility modulus, EV.
Ratio of compressive stress to Volumetric Strain
The relationship between a change in pressure, dp, and the
corresponding fractional change in specific volume, d/, is written
in terms of EV as:
The minus sign is necessary because a positive change in pressure
(a pressure increase) results in a negative change in volume (a
volume decrease). Since d/=d/, above may be written as

This equation can be rearranged to define the bulk modulus as

Regimes of Fluid Mechanics

deal Fluid Flow

maginary Situation, where the fluid is assumed to be inviscid or non-viscous and
ncompressible
o tangential force between the adjacent fluid layers, Internal Forces always actin
ormal to the section
his branch of study is known as Classical Hydrodynamics
Viscous Incompressible Flows
Assumes Fluid Density to be constant
Applications: - Flow of liquids and flow of air at low velocity

Gas Dynamics
eals with the dynamics and thermodynamics of the flow of a compressible fluid
Mach Number (M): - Ratio of Flow velocity to the Local speed of Sound
i) Subsonic Flow (M < 1)
ii) Transonic Flow (0.8 < M < 1.2)
iii) Supersonic Flow (1 < M < 5)
iv) Hypersonic Flow (M > 1)

Regimes of Fluid Mechanics

arefeid Gas Dynamics

plied when the concept of Continuum fails
udsen Number: - Dimensionless parameter, Kn, defined as the ratio of mean free
a characteristic length
) Continuum (Kn < 0.01)
) Slip Flow (0.01 < Kn < 0.1)
i) Transition Flow (0.1 < Kn < 5)
v) Free Molecular Flow Flow (Kn > 1)
these conditions encountered at High Altitudes where the molecular density if v

gneto-Fluid Mechanics
dy of the motion of an electrically charged conducting fluid in the presence of m
d
y High Temperatures, ~ 10000 K

ow of Multi-component Mixtures
udy of the flow of chemically reacting component mixtures, made of more than o
ecies
mentum / Energy / Mass Transport considered

Numerical
Que. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid
which is compressed from a volume of 0.0125 m3 at 80
N/cm2 to a volume of 0.0124 m3 at 150 N/cm2.

Answer: - 8.75 x 103 N/cm2

Pathline
y

.
V A (t )

.
dx

. .
x x A (t dt )

.
V A (t dt )

. .
x x A (t )

.
.
dx A
VA
dt
A pathline is the path, or trajectory, traced out by an

.
identified fluid particle.
dx

Note that here

is the displacement along the pathline

. .
of andxidentified
particle.
.
abj

dt

V ( x, t )

dx udt
dy vdt , or
dz wdt

dx dy dz

dt
u
v
w
65

Flow Description
A streamline is one that drawn, is tangential to the velocity vector at every point in the flow at
a given instant and forms a powerful tool in understanding flows.
These show the direction in which a massless fluid element will travel at any point in time

Streamlines

where u,v, and w are the

velocity components in x, y
and z directions
respectively as sketched

Streamline definition

Stream Surface and Stream Tube

Arbitrary open curve C

Stream Surface

Arbitrary closed curve C

Stream Tube

Stream Surface

Starting from an arbitrary open curve C.

If we trace out streamlines that start from points on this curve, we have a stream surface that contains C.

Stream Tube

abj

On the other hand, if we choose a closed curve, we have a stream tube.

From the definition of streamline, no flow can cross a stream tube.

Therefore, a stream tube acts like an imaginary pipe/channel.

Due to this property, stream tube is a useful tool for analysis.

67

Streakline
Dye injection

Use the current time t as a reference

time,
particle A passed through point P
at earlier time of t-dtA
particle B, at t-dtB
particle C, at t-dtC
particle D, at t-dtD

.
x A (t dt A )
.
x B (t dt B )
.
xC (t dtC )
.
x D (t dt D )

.
dx

.
x D (t )

.
xC (t )

.
x B (t )

.
x A (t )

A streakline is the line joining fluid particles that once passed through the same
fixed point in space. (It is helpful to think of a dye streak.)

.
Note that here
dx

is the displacement along the streakline.

One way to think of a streakline that passes through a point P is to think of a still image of a trace of dye
from an injection port at P.
abj

68

In a steady flow, streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines all

coincide.

Some Images

abj

Flow past an airfoil, visualized by dye in water

tunnel.
70
From Van Dyke, M., 1982, An Album of Fluid Motion, Parabolic Press.

abj

Flow past a block showing horseshoe vortex (top-right and

bottom),
71
visualized by smoke-wire.

ressure Variation in a Moving Fluid

The flow through a venturi tube can be used to induce the flow of a
second fluid.
A common example is a carburetor, in which the primary airflow
draws gasoline into the engine. As the air moves through the throat
(the region of reduced cross-sectional area), its velocity increases
and its pressure decreases. The drop in pressure provides suction,
which draws the gasoline into the throat and out through the exit of

ressure Variation in a Moving Fluid

Pressurevelocity relationship in a steadily moving fluid in the
absence of any frictional effects.
For a constant density fluid in motion at the same elevation, there is
an inverse relationship between the square of the fluid speed and
the pressure.
Including the effect of elevation, the relationship between pressure,
speed, and elevation at two points along the path of a fluid particle
is given by

ressure Variation in a Moving Fluid

When a high speed fluid

stream with initial velocity V
impacts a solid surface, its
velocity is reduced to zero.
As a result, its pressure must
increase
to
a
value
of
magnitude 1/2V2 above the
ambient pressure.

Problem

A jet of water with a crosssectional area of 2 cm2 strikes a

surface at a speed of 50 m/s as
shown in Figure.
Estimate the force applied to the
surface by the jet.
What force is applied by a jet of
air at this speed?

Problem
Show that pressure difference
in soap bubble is

Surface tension

Surface tension
A liquidgas interface. The
liquid molecules (represented
by solid colored spheres) are
packed
in
a
semi-orderly
fashion (atoms in a crystalline
solid are packed in a highly
ordered fashion).
The molecules in the interior of
the liquid, including molecule I,
generally have six nearest
molecular neighbors in the
plane of the paper.
In contrast, liquid molecules at
the liquid surface, such as
molecule S have only four
nearest molecular neighbors in
the plane of the paper. This
difference in number of nearest
neighbors result in a surface
tension or equivalently a
surface energy at any fluid

Surface tension
As shown in Figure, molecules below the
surface of a liquid have a characteristic
number of nearest neighbors. The total
energy of the fluid system is minimized when
each molecule has the correct number of
neighbors (determined by the bonding
characteristics of the atoms in the fluid).
Molecules at the liquid surface, however,
have a different number of nearest
neighbors. There are two ways to interpret
this observation. First, since the surface
molecules have the wrong number of
neighbors, they will be at a higher energy
state. The excess energy associated with the
molecules
Surface energy,
is represented
by the symbol , has
at thewhich
surface
is known as
dimensions
of energy per unit area, {FL/L2}, or equivalently, {F/L},
surface
energy.
and is expressed in units of ergs/cm2, J/m2.
The corresponding net force on a molecule in the interface acts in
the plane of the surface in all directions and is referred to as the
surface tension
It has same unit as that of surface energy.

Surface tension
Schematic illustration of a spherical
liquid bubble surrounded by a gas.
The surface tension acts on a liquid
molecule located at the interface in
the plane of the liquidgas
interface in all directions.
In this two-dimensional view, the
surface tension acts on the colored
molecule in the direction of the
indicated arrows.

Surface tension
Surface Tension Values for Various Fluid Systems at Room
Temperature

Mercury turns into droplets readily due to high surface tension

The magnitude of the surface tension is a function of the fluids on
both sides of the interface.

ressure Jump Across a Curved Interface

Schematic illustration of the vertical force balance on a

hemispherical portion of a liquid bubble suspended in gas.
The sum of the surface tension, , and the uniform pressure, p,
acting on the outside of the bubble must be balanced by the higher
pressure, p+p, acting on the inside of the bubble.
If the drop is at rest, then Newtons second law tells us that the
sum of the forces acting on the interface in any direction must be
zero.

ressure Jump Across a Curved Interface

The only forces acting on the interface are those due to pressure
and surface tension.
The net action of a uniform pressure inside a hemisphere is as if the
same pressure acted on the equatorial plane of area r 2 (projected
area).
Surface tension acts on the circumference of the hemisphere, 2r.
If we let p be the pressure difference, inside minus outside, then the
force equilibrium condition just stated becomes

Contact Angle and Wetting

Schematic diagrams of a liquid in contact with a solid and a gas.

(A)The relevant force balance at the contact line.
(B)Example of a liquid wetting a solid as defined by a contact angle c
<90.
(C)In contrast, the liquid does not wet the solid, since c >90.
The airwaterglass system forms a contact angle of 0 so that water
wets glass. In contrast, the airmercuryglass system forms a contact
angle of140 so that Hg does not wet the glass.

Contact Angle and Wetting

The effect of surface tension is
evident in the contact angle c,
defined to be the angle in the
liquid
between
the
solid
surface and the interface at the
contact line. The net surface
tension acting on a contact line
depends on all three materials
liquid, gas, and solid. A force
balance on the contact line
shows that
Where SG is the surface tension of the gassolid interface, SL is
the surface tension of the solidliquid interface, and is the
surface tension of the gasliquid interface.
Experimental observations show that the contact angle for an air
waterglass interface is 0 , while the contact angle for a air
mercuryglass interface is 140.
If the contact angle is less than 90, the surface is said to be
wetted by the liquid. Perfect wetting occurs if the contact angle is
0.

Capillarity (Capillary Action)

The capillary action in a solid tube depends on the contact angle

associated with the corresponding gasliquidsolid system.
(A)When the liquid wets the solid (c <90), the liquid level within
the tube will be above the liquidgas interface outside the tube.
(B)When the liquid does not wet the solid (c >90), the liquid level
within the tube will be below the general liquidgas interface.
(C)Enlarged view of the case in (A) including the terms associated
with the force balance on the liquid within the capillary tube.

Capillary Action
The column is at rest, so the sum of all forces acting on the fluid
column is zero. The pressure acting on the top of the meniscus
formed in the tube is atmospheric. The pressure acting at the
bottom of the liquid column inside the tube is also atmospheric,
because lines of constant pressure in a stationary fluid in a
gravity field are horizontal, and the tube is open.
Since atmospheric pressure acts over an area equal to the cross
section of the tube at each end, the net effect of pressure on
the liquid column is zero.
The surface tension force acting up on the contact line, plus the
force of gravity on the liquid column acting down must
therefore add to zero.
From the geometry at the contact line we find
Solving for the height of capillary rise, we have

Vapour pressure

All liquids have a tendency to evaporate when exposed to a

gaseous atmosphere.
The rate of evaporation depends upon the molecular energy of
the liquid which in turn depends upon the type of liquid and its
temperature.
The vapour molecules exert a partial pressure in the space above
the liquid, known as vapour pressure.

Vapour pressure

apour pressure and Cavitation

The space above the liquid then
becomes saturated with vapour.
The vapour pressure of a given
liquid is a function of temperature
only and is equal to the
saturation pressure for boiling
corresponding
to
that
temperature.
Hence, the vapour pressure
increases with the increase in
temperature.
Therefore the phenomenon of
boiling of a liquid is closely
related to the vapour pressure.
In fact, when the vapour pressure
of a concludes
liquid becomes
equal to
This
that boiling
canthe
be achieved either
by raising the
total
pressure
impressed
on
its
temperature of the liquid, so that its vapour pressure is elevated to the
surface, the
liquid starts
ambient
pressure,
or byboiling.
lowering the pressure of the ambience
(surrounding gas) to the liquid's vapour pressure at the existing
temperature.

apour pressure and Cavitation

Cavitation occur due to low pressure on the surface in high speed
turbo machinery applications.
Caviation damages the parts/moving blades

Effect
of
cavitati
on

Cavitation damage evident on the

propeller of a watercraft

A wet cylinder liner of a diesel engine

with severe erosion of the cylinder wall.
Notice that the cavitation runs along a
line from top to bottom where coolant
pressure is lowest. The cavitation is also
notably heavier hear the top where
compression and ignition pressures are
highest.

ifference between Boiling and Evaporation

End of Module 1