Principles of Information

Security,
Fourth Edition
Chapter 7
Security Technology: Intrusion
Detection and Prevention Systems,
and Other Security Tools
Do not wait; the time will never be just right. Start where you stand and
work with whatever tools you may have at your command, and better
tools will be found as you go along.
NAPOLEON HILL (18831970) FOUNDER OF THE SCIENCE of SUCCESS

Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this material, you should be
able to:
Identify and describe the categories and operating
models of intrusion detection and prevention systems
Define and describe honeypots, honeynets, and
padded cell systems
List and define the major categories of scanning and
analysis tools, and describe the specific tools used
within each of these categories
Explain the various methods of access control,
including the use of biometric access mechanisms
Principles of Information Security, Fourth Edition

Introduction
Protection of organizations assets depend as much
on people as technical controls
Technical solutions, guided by policy and properly
implemented are essential to an information
security program
Advanced technologies can be used to enhance
the security of information assets

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Intrusion Detection and Prevention

Systems
Intrusion: occurs when an attacker attempts to gain
entry into or disrupt the normal operations of an
information system, almost always with the intent to
do harm
Intrusion prevention: consists of activities that seek
to deter an intrusion from occurring

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Intrusion Detection and Prevention

Systems (contd.)
Intrusion detection: consists of procedures and
systems created and operated to detect system
intrusions
Intrusion reaction: encompasses actions an
organization undertakes when intrusion event is
detected
Intrusion correction activities: finalize restoration of
operations to a normal state

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Intrusion Detection and Prevention

Systems (contd.)
Detect a violation of its configuration and activate
alarm
Many IDSs enable administrators to configure
systems to notify them directly of trouble via e-mail
or pagers
Systems can also be configured to notify an
external security service organization of a breakin

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IDPS Terminology

Site policy awareness

Tuning
True attack stimulus
Confidence value
Alarm filtering
Alarm clustering and
compaction

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Alert or alarm
Evasion
False attack stimulus
False negative and
false positive
Noise
Site policy

Why Use an IDPS?

Prevent problem behaviors by increasing the
perceived risk of discovery and punishment
Detect attacks and other security violations
Detect and deal with preambles to attacks
Document existing threat to an organization
Act as quality control for security design and
administration, especially of large and complex
enterprises
Provide useful information about intrusions that
take place
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Types of IDPS
IDSs operate as network-based or host-based
Network-based IDPS is focused on protecting
network information assets
Wireless IDPS: focuses on wireless networks
Network behavior analysis IDPS: examines traffic
flow on a network in an attempt to recognize
abnormal patterns

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Figure 7-1 Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems

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Types of IDPS (contd.)

Network-based IDPS
Resides on computer or appliance connected to
segment of an organizations network; looks for
signs of attacks
When examining packets, a NIDPS looks for attack
patterns
Installed at specific place in the network where it can
watch traffic going into and out of particular network
segment

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Types of IDPS (contd.)

NIDPS signature matching
To detect an attack, NIDPSs look for attack patterns
Done by using special implementation of TCP/IP
stack:
In process of protocol stack verification, NIDPSs look
for invalid data packets
In application protocol verification, higher-order
protocols are examined for unexpected packet
behavior or improper use

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Types of IDPS (contd.)

Advantages of NIDPSs
Good network design and placement of NIDPS can
enable organization to use a few devices to monitor
large network
NIDPSs are usually passive and can be deployed
into existing networks with little disruption to normal
network operations
NIDPSs not usually susceptible to direct attack and
may not be detectable by attackers

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Types of IDPS (contd.)

Disadvantages of NIDPSs
Can become overwhelmed by network volume and
fail to recognize attacks
Require access to all traffic to be monitored
Cannot analyze encrypted packets
Cannot reliably ascertain if attack was successful or
not
Some forms of attack are not easily discerned by
NIDPSs, specifically those involving fragmented
packets
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Types of IDPS (contd.)

Wireless NIDPS
Monitors and analyzes wireless network traffic
Issues associated with it include physical security,
sensor range, access point and wireless switch
locations, wired network connections, cost

Network behavior analysis systems

Examine network traffic in order to identify problems
related to the flow of traffic
Types of events commonly detected include DoS
attacks, scanning, worms, unexpected application
services, policy violations
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Types of IDPS (contd.)

Host-based IDPS
Resides on a particular computer or server and
monitors activity only on that system
Benchmark and monitor the status of key system
files and detect when intruder creates, modifies, or
deletes files
Most HIDPSs work on the principle of configuration
or change management
Advantage over NIDPS: can usually be installed so
that it can access information encrypted when
traveling over network
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Types of IDPS (contd.)

Advantages of HIDPSs
Can detect local events on host systems and detect
attacks that may elude a network-based IDPS
Functions on host system, where encrypted traffic
will have been decrypted and is available for
processing
Not affected by use of switched network protocols
Can detect inconsistencies in how applications and
systems programs were used by examining records
stored in audit logs
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Types of IDPS (contd.)

Disadvantages of HIDPSs
Pose more management issues
Vulnerable both to direct attacks and attacks against
host operating system
Does not detect multi-host scanning, nor scanning of
non-host network devices
Susceptible to some denial-of-service attacks
Can use large amounts of disk space
Can inflict a performance overhead on its host
systems
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IDPS Detection Methods

Signature-based IDPS
Examine data traffic in search of patterns that match
known signatures
Widely used because many attacks have clear and
distinct signatures
Problem with this approach is that as new attack
strategies are identified, the IDPSs database of
signatures must be continually updated

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IDPS Detection Methods (contd.)

Statistical anomaly-based IDPS
The statistical anomaly-based IDPS (stat IDPS) or
behavior-based IDPS sample network activity to
compare to traffic that is known to be normal
When measured activity is outside baseline
parameters or clipping level, IDPS will trigger an
alert
IDPS can detect new types of attacks
Requires much more overhead and processing
capacity than signature-based
May generate many false positives
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IDPS Detection Methods (contd.)

Stateful protocol analysis IDPS
SPA: process of comparing predetermined profiles of
definitions of benign activity for each protocol state
against observed events to identify deviations
Stores and uses relevant data detected in a session to
identify intrusions involving multiple
requests/responses; allows IDPS to better detect
specialized, multisession attacks
Drawbacks: analytical complexity; processing
overhead; may fail to detect unless protocol violates
fundamental behavior; may cause problems with
protocol its examining
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IDPS Detection Methods (contd.)

Log file monitors
Log file monitor (LFM) similar to NIDPS
Reviews log files generated by servers, network
devices, and even other IDPSs for patterns and
signatures
Patterns that signify attack may be much easier to
identify when entire network and its systems are
viewed holistically
Requires allocation of considerable resources since
it will involve the collection, movement, storage, and
analysis of large quantities of log data
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IDPS Response Behavior

Once IDPS detects an anomalous network
situation, it has a number of options
IDPS responses can be classified as active or
passive
Active response: collecting additional information
about the intrusion, modifying the network
environment, taking action against the intrusion
Passive response: setting off alarms or notifications,
collecting passive data through SNMP traps

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Selecting IDPS Approaches and

Products
Technical and policy considerations
What is your systems environment?
What are your security goals and objectives?
What is your existing security policy?

Organizational requirements and constraints

What are requirements that are levied from outside
the organization?
What are your organizations resource constraints?

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Selecting IDPS Approaches and

Products (contd.)
IDPSs product features and quality
Is the product sufficiently scalable for your
environment?
How has the product been tested?
What is the user level of expertise targeted by the
product?
Is the product designed to evolve as the organization
grows?
What are the support provisions for the product?

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Strengths and Limitations of IDPSs

IDPSs perform the following functions well:
Monitoring and analysis of system events and user
behaviors
Testing security states of system configurations
Baselining security state of system and tracking
changes
Recognizing system event patterns matching known
attacks
Recognizing activity patterns that vary from normal
activity
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Strengths and Limitations of IDPSs

(contd.)
IDPSs perform the following functions well:
(contd.)
Managing OS audit and logging mechanisms and
data they generate
Alerting appropriate staff when attacks are detected
Measuring enforcement of security policies encoded
in analysis engine
Providing default information security policies
Allowing non-security experts to perform important
security monitoring functions
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Strengths and Limitations of IDPSs

(contd.)
IDPSs cannot perform the following functions:
Compensating for weak/missing security
mechanisms in protection infrastructure
Instantaneously detecting, reporting, responding to
attack when there is heavy network or processing
load
Detecting new attacks or variants of existing attacks
Effectively responding to attacks by sophisticated
attackers
Investigating attacks without human intervention
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Strengths and Limitations of IDPSs

(contd.)
IDPSs cannot perform the following functions
(contd.):
Resisting attacks intended to defeat or circumvent
them
Compensating for problems with fidelity of data
sources
Dealing effectively with switched networks

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Deployment and Implementation of an

IDPS
An IDPS can be implemented via one of three
basic control strategies
Centralized: all IDPS control functions are
implemented and managed in a central location
Fully distributed: all control functions are applied at
the physical location of each IDPS component
Partially distributed: combines the two; while
individual agents can still analyze and respond to
local threats, they report to a hierarchical central
facility to enable organization to detect widespread
attacks
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Figure 7-4 Centralized IDPS Control13

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Figure 7-5 Fully Distributed IDPS Control14

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Figure 7-6 Partially Distributed IDPS Control15

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Deployment and Implementation of an

IDPS (contd.)
IDPS deployment
Like decision regarding control strategies, decision
about where to locate elements of intrusion detection
systems can be art in itself
Planners must select deployment strategy that is
based on careful analysis of organizations
information security requirements but, at the same
time, causes minimal impact
NIDPS and HIDPS can be used in tandem to cover
both individual systems that connect to an
organizations networks and networks themselves
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Deployment and Implementation of an

IDPS (contd.)
Deploying network-based IDPSs
NIST recommends four locations for NIDPS sensors
Location 1: Behind each external firewall, in the
network DMZ
Location 2: Outside an external firewall
Location 3: On major network backbones
Location 4: On critical subnets

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Figure 7-7 Network IDPS Sensor Locations17

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Deployment and Implementation of an

IDPS (contd.)
Deploying host-based IDPSs
Proper implementation of HIDPSs can be a
painstaking and time-consuming task
Deployment begins with implementing most critical
systems first
Installation continues until either all systems are
installed or the organization reaches planned degree
of coverage it is willing to live with

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Measuring the Effectiveness of IDPSs

IDPSs are evaluated using four dominant metrics:
thresholds, blacklists and whitelists, alert settings,
and code viewing and editing
Evaluation of IDPS might read: at 100 Mb/s, IDS
was able to detect 97% of directed attacks
Since developing this collection can be tedious,
most IDPS vendors provide testing mechanisms
that verify systems are performing as expected

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Measuring the Effectiveness of IDPSs

(contd.)
Some of these testing processes will enable the
administrator to:
Record and retransmit packets from real virus or
worm scan
Record and retransmit packets from a real virus or
worm scan with incomplete TCP/IP session
connections (missing SYN packets)
Conduct a real virus or worm scan against an
invulnerable system

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Honeypots, Honeynets, and Padded

Cell Systems
Honeypots: decoy systems designed to lure potential
attackers away from critical systems and encourage
attacks against the themselves
Honeynets: collection of honeypots connecting
several honey pot systems on a subnet
Honeypots designed to:
Divert attacker from accessing critical systems
Collect information about attackers activity
Encourage attacker to stay on system long enough for
administrators to document event and, perhaps,
respond
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Figure 7-8 Deception Toolkit

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Honeypots, Honeynets, and Padded

Cell Systems (contd.)
Padded cell: honeypot that has been protected so it
cannot be easily compromised
In addition to attracting attackers with tempting
data, a padded cell operates in tandem with a
traditional IDS
When the IDS detects attackers, it seamlessly
transfers them to a special simulated environment
where they can cause no harmthe nature of this
host environment is what gives approach the name
padded cell
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Honeypots, Honeynets, and Padded

Cell Systems (contd.)
Advantages
Attackers can be diverted to targets they cannot
damage
Administrators have time to decide how to respond
to attacker
Attackers actions can be easily and more
extensively monitored, and records can be used to
refine threat models and improve system protections
Honey pots may be effective at catching insiders
who are snooping around a network
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Honeypots, Honeynets, and Padded

Cell Systems (contd.)
Disadvantages
Legal implications of using such devices are not well
defined
Honeypots and padded cells have not yet been
shown to be generally useful security technologies
Expert attacker, once diverted into a decoy system,
may become angry and launch a more hostile attack
against an organizations systems
Administrators and security managers will need a
high level of expertise to use these systems
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Trap and Trace Systems

Use combination of techniques to detect an intrusion
and trace it back to its source
Trap usually consists of honeypot or padded cell and
alarm
Legal drawbacks to trap and trace
Enticement: process of attracting attention to system
by placing tantalizing bits of information in key
locations
Entrapment: action of luring an individual into
committing a crime to get a conviction
Enticement is legal and ethical, entrapment is not
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Active Intrusion Prevention

Some organizations implement active
countermeasures to stop attacks
One tool (LaBrea) takes up unused IP address
space to pretend to be a computer and allow
attackers to complete a connection request, but
then holds connection open

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Scanning and Analysis Tools

Typically used to collect information that attacker
would need to launch successful attack
Attack protocol is series of steps or processes used
by an attacker, in a logical sequence, to launch
attack against a target system or network
Footprinting: the organized research of Internet
addresses owned or controlled by a target
organization

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Figure 7-9 Sam Spade

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Scanning and Analysis Tools (contd.)

Fingerprinting: systematic survey of all of target
organizations Internet addresses collected during
the footprinting phase
Fingerprinting reveals useful information about
internal structure and operational nature of target
system or network for anticipated attack
These tools are valuable to network defender since
they can quickly pinpoint the parts of the systems
or network that need a prompt repair to close the
vulnerability
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Port Scanners
Tools used by both attackers and defenders to
identify computers active on a network and other
useful information
Can scan for specific types of computers,
protocols, or resources, or their scans can be
generic
The more specific the scanner is, the better it can
give attackers and defenders useful information

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Table 7-1 Select Commonly Used Port Numbers

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Firewall Analysis Tools

Several tools automate remote discovery of firewall
rules and assist the administrator in analyzing them
Administrators who feel wary of using the same
tools that attackers use should remember:
It is intent of user that will dictate how information
gathered will be used
In order to defend a computer or network well, it is
necessary to understand ways it can be attacked

A tool that can help close up an open or poorly

configured firewall will help network defender
minimize risk from attack
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Operating System Detection Tools

Detecting a target computers operating system
(OS) is very valuable to an attacker
There are many tools that use networking protocols
to determine a remote computers OS

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Vulnerability Scanners
Active vulnerability scanners scan networks for
highly detailed information; initiate traffic to
determine holes
Passive vulnerability scanners listen in on network
and determine vulnerable versions of both server
and client software
Passive vulnerability scanners have ability to find
client-side vulnerabilities typically not found in
active scanners

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Packet Sniffers
Network tool that collects copies of packets from
network and analyzes them
Can provide network administrator with valuable
information for diagnosing and resolving networking
issues
In the wrong hands, a sniffer can be used to
eavesdrop on network traffic
To use packet sniffer legally, administrator must be on
network that organization owns, be under direct
authorization of owners of network, and have
knowledge and consent of the content creators
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Figure 7-17 Wireshark

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Wireless Security Tools

Organization that spends its time securing wired
network and leaves wireless networks to operate in
any manner is opening itself up for security breach
Security professional must assess risk of wireless
networks
A wireless security toolkit should include the ability
to sniff wireless traffic, scan wireless hosts, and
assess level of privacy or confidentiality afforded
on the wireless network

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Biometric Access Control

Based on the use of some measurable human
characteristic or trait to authenticate the identity of
a proposed systems user (a supplicant)
Relies upon recognition
Includes fingerprint comparison, palm print
comparison, hand geometry, facial recognition
using a photographic id card or digital camera,
retinal print, iris pattern
Characteristics considered truly unique:
fingerprints, retina of the eye, iris of the eye
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Figure 7-20 Biometric Recognition Characteristics

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Effectiveness of Biometrics
Biometric technologies evaluated on three basic
criteria:
False reject rate: the rejection of legitimate users
False accept rate: the acceptance of unknown users
Crossover error rate (CER): the point where false
reject and false accept rates cross when graphed

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Acceptability of Biometrics
Balance must be struck between how acceptable
security system is to users and its effectiveness in
maintaining security
Many biometric systems that are highly reliable and
effective are considered intrusive
As a result, many information security
professionals, in an effort to avoid confrontation
and possible user boycott of biometric controls,
dont implement them

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Table 7-3 Ranking of Biometric Effectiveness and Acceptance

H=High, M=Medium, L=Low
Reproduced from The 123 of Biometric Technology, 2003, by Yun,
Yau Wei22
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Summary
Intrusion detection system (IDPS) detects violation
of its configuration and activates alarm
Network-based IDPS (NIDPS) vs. host-based IDPS
(HIDPS)
Selecting IDPS products that best fit organizations
needs is challenging and complex
Honey pots are decoy systems; two variations are
known as honey nets and padded cell systems

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Summary (contd.)
Scanning and analysis tools are used to pinpoint
vulnerabilities in systems, holes in security
components, and unsecured aspects of network
Authentication is validation of prospective users
(supplicants) identity

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