Mechanical Behavior

Stress versus Strain

Elastic Deformation
Plastic Deformation
Hardness
Creep and Stress Relaxation
Viscoelastic Deformation

Stress versus Strain

Mechanical Properties
Deal directly with behavior of materials under applied forces.
Properties are described by applied stress and resulting strain, or applied strain
and resulting stress.
Example: 100 lb force applies to end of a rod results in a stress applied to the end of the
rod causing it to stretch or elongate, which is measured as strain.

Strength: ability of material to resist application of load without rupture.

Ultimate strength- maximum force per cross section area.
Yield strength- force at yield point per cross section area.
Other strengths include rupture strength, proportional strength, etc.

Stiffness: resistance of material to deform under load while in elastic state.

Stiffness is usually measured by the Modulus of Elasticity (Stress/strain)
Steel is stiff (tough to bend). Some beds are stiff, some are soft (compliant)

Testing Procedures
Mechanical Testing
Properties that deal with elastic or inelastic behavior of a material under load
Primary measurements involved are load applied and effects of load application
Two classification of tests; method of loading and the condition of the specimen
during the test

Primary types of tests

Tensile
Compression
Shear
Torsion
Flexure

Mechanical Test Considerations

Principle factors are in three main areas
manner in which the load is applied
condition of material specimen at time of test
surrounding conditions (environment) during testing

Tests classification- load application

kind of stress induced. Single load or Multiple loads
rate at which stress is developed: static versus dynamic
number of cycles of load application: single versus fatigue

Primary types of loading

tension

compression

shear

torsion
flexure

Standardized Testing Conditions

Moisture
100F, 100% R.H.
1 Day, 7 Days, 14 Days

Temperature
Room Temperature: Most common
Elevated Temperature: Rocket engines
Low Temperature: Automotive impact

Salt spray for corrosion

Rocker Arms on cars subject to immersion in NaCl solution for 1
Day and 7 Days at Room Temperature and 140 F.

Acid or Caustic environments

Tensile tests on samples after immersion in acid/alkaline baths.

Stress
Stress: Intensity of the internally distributed forces or
component of forces that resist a change in the form of a
body.
Tension, Compression, Shear, Torsion, Flexure

Stress calculated by force per unit area. Applied force

divided by the cross sectional area of the specimen.
F
Stress units
Pascals = Pa = Newtons/m2
Pounds per square inch = Psi

Note: 1MPa = 1 x10 6 Pa = 145 psi

Example
Wire 12 in long is tied vertically. The wire has a diameter of 0.100
in and supports 100 lbs. What is the stress that is developed?
Stress = F/A = F/r2 = 100/(3.1415927 * 0.052 )= 12,739 psi =
87.86 MPa

Stress
Example
Tensile Bar is 10in x 1in x 0.1in is mounted vertically
in test machine. The bar supports 100 lbs. What is the
stress that is developed? What is the Load?
Stress = F/A = F/(width*thickness) = 100lbs/(1in*.1in )=
1,000 psi = 1000 psi/145psi = 6.897 Mpa
Load = 100 lbs

Block is 10 cm x 1 cm x 5 cm is mounted on its side in

a test machine. The block is pulled with 100 N on both
sides. What is the stress that is developed? What is the
Load?
Stress = F/A = F/(width*thickness) = 100N/(.01m * .10m )=
100,000 N/m2 = 100,000 Pa = 0.1 MPa= 0.1 MPa
*145psi/MPa = 14.5 psi
Load = 100 N

1 in

0.1 in
10in

100 lbs

1 cm

10cm 5cm

Strain
Strain: Physical change in the dimensions of a specimen that results from applying a load to the
test specimen.
Strain calculated by the ratio of the change in length and the original length. (Deformation)

l0

l0

lF

Strain units (Dimensionless)

When units are given they usually are in/in or mm/mm. (Change in dimension divided by original
length)

% Elongation = strain x 100%

Strain
Example

1 in

0.1 in
10in

Tensile Bar is 10in x 1in x 0.1in is mounted vertically in

test machine. The bar supports 100 lbs. What is the
strain that is developed if the bar grows to 10.2in? What
is % Elongation?
100 lbs
Strain = (lf - l0)/l0 = (10.2 -10)/(10) = 0.02 in/in
Percent Elongation = 0.02 * 100 = 2%

Block is 10 cm x 1 cm x 5 cm is mounted on its side in

a test machine. The block is pulled with 1000 kN on
bone side. If the material elongation at yield is 1.5%,
how far will it grow at yield?

Strain = Percent Elongation /100 = 1.5%/100 = 0.015 cm /cm

Strain = (lf - l0)/l0 = (lf -5)/(5) = 0.015 cm/cm
Growth = 5 * 0.015 = 0.075 cm
Final Length = 5.075 cm

1 cm

10cm 5cm

Strain
Permanent set is a change in form of a specimen once the
stress ends.
Axial strain is the strain that occurs in the same direction as
the applied stress.
Lateral strain is the strain that occurs perpendicular to the
direction of the applied stress.
Poissons ratio is ratio of lateral strain to axial strain.
Poissons ratio = lateral strain
axial strain

Lateral
Strain
Axial
Strain

Example
Calculate the Poissons ratio of a material with lateral strain of
0.002 and an axial strain of 0.006
Poissons ratio = 0.002/0.006 = 0.333

Note: For most materials, Poissons ratio is between 0.25 and 0.5
Metals: 0.29 (304 SS) to 0.3 (1040 steel) to 0.35 (Mg)
Ceramics and Glasses: 0.19 (TiC) to 0.26 (BeO) to 0.31 (Cordierite)
Plastics: 0.35 (Acetals) to 0.41 (Nylons)

Stress-Strain Diagrams
Equipment
Strainometers: measures dimensional changes that occur during
testing
extensometers, deflectometers, and compressometers measure changes in
linear dimensions.
load cells measure load
data is recorded at several readings and the results averaged, e.g., 10
samples per second during the test.

Stress-Strain Diagrams
Stress-strain diagrams is a plot of stress with the
corresponding strain produced.
Stress is the y-axis
Strain is the x-axis

Stress

Linear
(Hookean)
Non-Linear
(non-Hookean)

Strain

Stiffness
Stiffness is a measure of the materials ability to resist deformation under load
as measured in stress.
Stiffness is measures as the slope of the stress-strain curve
Hookean solid: (like a spring) linear slope

steel
aluminum
iron
copper

F kx

All solids (Hookean and viscoelastic)

metals
plastics
composites
ceramics

Modulus
Modulus of Elasticity (E) or Youngs Modulus is the ratio of stress to
corresponding strain (within specified limits).
A measure of stiffness

Stainless Steel E= 28.5 million psi (196.5 GPa)

Aluminum
E= 10 million psi
Brass
E= 16 million psi
CopperE= 16 million psi
Molybdenum
E= 50 million psi
Nickel
E= 30 million psi
Titanium
E= 15.5 million psi
Tungsten
E= 59 million psi
Carbon fiber
E= 40 million psi
Glass E= 10.4 million psi
Composites
E= 1 to 3 million psi
Plastics
E= 0.2 to 0.7 million psi

Modulus Types
Modulus: Slope of the stress-strain curve
Initial Modulus: slope of the curve drawn at the origin.
Tangent Modulus: slope of the curve drawn at the tangent of the
curve at some point.
Secant Modulus: Ratio of stress to strain at any point on curve in a
stress-strain diagram. It is the slope of a line from the origin to any
point on a stress-strain curve.
Initial Modulus

Stress

Tangent Modulus
Secant Modulus

Strain

Compression Testing
Principles
Compression results from forces that push toward each
other.
Specimens are short and large diameter.
Circular cross section is recommended.
Length to diameter ratio is important consideration

Universal test machine (UTM)

Size and load of compression machine are specially built.
Load and compression amount are measured.

Stress

Force per unit area. Applied force divided by the cross

sectional area of the specimen.

Strain calculated by the ratio of the change in length and

the original length. (Deformation)

lF

l0

Expected Results
Similar Stress-strain curve as tensile testing

Stress

Strain

Shear Testing
Principles
Direct shear occurs when parallel forces are applied in the opposite
direction.
Single shear occurs on a single plane.
Double shear occurs on two planes simultaneously.

Shear Testing
Principles
Torsional shearing forces occur when the forces applied lie in
parallel but opposite directions. Twisting motion.
Torsional forces developed in a material are the result of an applied torque.
Torque is Forces x distance..

Universal test machine (UTM)

Special fixtures are needed to hold the specimen.
One end of the specimen is placed in a fixture that applies
torsional load and the other end is connected to a tropometer,
which measures the detrusion (load and deflection or twist)

Expected Results
Similar Stress-strain curve as tensile testing

Stress

Strain

Bend of Flexure Testing

Principles
Bending forces occur when load is applied to a beam or rod that involves compression forces on
one side of a beam and tensile forces on the other side.
Deflection of a beam is the displacement of a point on a neutral surface of a beam from its original
position under action of applied loads.
Flexure is the bending of a material specimen under load.
Strength that material exhibits is a function of the flexural modulus of the material and the crosssectional geometry.
Example, rectangular beam of 1 x 4 (W) will exhibit higher flexural strength than a 2 by 2 square
beam of the same material modulus.

Properties are the same as in tensile testing.

Strength, deflection, modulus, ultimate strength, etc.

Specimen is loaded in a 3-point bending test

bottom goes in tension and the top goes in compression.

Failure analysis can provide information as the type of failure,

either tension or compression failure,
buckle prior to failure,
condition of fracture, e.e., rough, jagged, or smooth.

Equipment
Universal test machine (UTM)
Special fixtures are needed to hold the specimen.
Precautions
Specimen length should be 6 to 12 times the width to avoid shear failure or
buckling.
Areas of contact with the material under test should be such that unduly
high stress concentrations are avoided.
Longitudinal adjustments are necessary for the supports.
Lateral rotational adjustments should be provided to prevent torsional
stresses.
The parts should be arranged to be stable under load.

Expected Results
Similar Stress-strain curve as tensile testing
Stress

Strain

Impact Testing
Principles
Materials exhibit different properties depending on the rate at
which a load is applied and the resulting strain that occurs.
If a load is applied over a long period of time (static test)the material can
withstand greater loads than if the test is applied rapidly (dynamic).

Properties of materials are stain dependent.

Standardized tests are used to determine the amount of energy
required to break a material in impact tests.
Outcome of impact tests is to determine the amount of energy
needed to break a sample.

Impact Testing
Principles
Energy absorbed in several ways

Elastic deformation of the members or parts of a system.

Plastic deformation.
Hysteresis effects.
Frictional action
effects of inertia on moving parts.

Energy is defined as the ability to do work.

E =W = F*D

Work is Force times distance moved.

Energy of a dropped object hitting a specimen is

E = w*h
Energy is weight times height dropped.
E = m*g*h (metric) Energy is mass times gravity acceleration times height.

Equipment
Impact Testing Equipment
Izod and Charpy are the most common tests.
Both employ a swinging pendulum and conducted on small notched
specimens. The notch concentrated the load at a point causing failure. Other
wise without the notch the specimen will plastically deform throughout.
They are different in the design of the test specimen and the velocity at
which the pendulum strikes the specimen.
Charpy: the specimen is supported as a single beam and held horizontally.
Impacted at the back face of the specimen.
Izod: the specimen is supported as a cantilever and help vertically. Impacted
at front face of the specimen.
Figure 19-1

Impact Test
In standard testing, such as tensile and flexural testing, the
material absorbs energy slowly.
In real life, materials often absorb applied forces very quickly:
falling objects, blows, collisions, drops, etc.
A product is more likely to fail when it is subjected to an impact
blow, in comparison to the same force being applied more slowly.
The purpose of impact testing is to simulate these conditions.

Impact Test
Impact testing is testing an object's ability to resist high-rate loading.
An impact test is a test for determining the energy absorbed in fracturing a test piece at high
velocity.
Most of us think of it as one object striking another object at a relatively high speed.
Impact resistance is one of the most important properties for a part designer to consider, and
without question the most difficult to quantify.
The impact resistance of a part is, in many applications, a critical measure of service life. More
importantly these days, it involves the perplexing problem of product safety and liability.

One must determine:

1.the impact energies the part can be expected to see in its lifetime,
2.the type of
impact that will deliver that energy, and then
3.select a material that will resist
such assaults over the projected life span.
Molded-in stresses, polymer orientation, weak spots (e.g. weld lines or gate areas), and part
geometry will affect impact performance.
Impact properties also change when additives, e.g. coloring agents, are added to plastics.

Impact Test
Most real world impacts are biaxial rather than
unidirectional.
Plastics, being anisotropic, cooperate by divulging the easiest
route to failure.

Complicated choice of failure modes: Ductile or brittle.

Brittle materials take little energy to start a crack, little more to
propagate it to a shattering climax.
Highly ductile materials fail by puncture in drop weight testing
and require a high energy load to initiate and propagate the crack.
Many materials are capable of either ductile or brittle failure,
depending upon the type of test and rate and temperature
conditions.
They possess a ductile/brittle transition that actually shifts
according to these variables.
For example, some plastic food containers are fine when dropped
onto the floor at room temperature but a frozen one can crack when
dropped.

Expected Results
Charpy Test
Capacity of 220 ft-lb for metals and 4 ft-lbs for plastics
Pendulum swings at 17.5 ft/sec.
Specimen dimensions are 10 x 10 x 55 mm, notched on one side.

Procedure
Pendulum is set to angle, , and swings through specimen and
reaches the final angel, . If no energy given then = .
Energy is

Expected Results
Izod Test
Capacity of 120 ft-lb for metals and 4 ft-lbs for plastics
Impacted at the front face of the specimen.
Specimen dimensions are 10 x 10 x 75 mm, notched on one side.

Procedure
Pendulum is set to angle, , and swings through specimen and
reaches the final angel, . If no energy given then = .
Energy is

Fundamentals of Hardness
Hardness is thought of as the resistance to penetration by an object or the solidity
or firmness of an object

Resistance to permanent indentation under static or dynamic loads

Energy absorption under impact loads (rebound hardness)
Resistance toe scratching (scratch hardness)
Resistance to abrasion (abrasion hardness)
Resistance to cutting or drilling (machinability)

Principles of hardness (resistance to indentation)

indenter: ball or plain or truncated cone or pyramid made of hard steel or diamond
Load measured that yields a given depth
Indentation measured that comes from a specified load
Rebound height measured in rebound test after a dynamic load is dropped onto a surface

Hardness Mechanical Tests

Brinell Test Method
One of the oldest tests
Static test that involves pressing a hardened steel ball (10mm) into a test
specimen while under a load of
3000 kg load for hard metals,
1500 kg load for intermediate hardness metals
500 kg load for soft materials

Various types of Brinell

Method of load application:oil pressure, gear-driven screw, or weights with a lever
Method of operation: hand or electric power
Method of measuring load: piston with weights, bourdon gage, dynamoeter, or
weights with a lever
Size of machine: stationary (large) or portable (hand-held)

Brinell Test Conditions

Brinell Test Method (continued)
Method
Specimen is placed on the anvil and raised to contact the ball
Load is applied by forcing the main piston down and presses the ball
into the specimen
A Bourbon gage is used to indicate the applied load
When the desired load is applied, the balance weight on top of the
machine is lifted to prevent an overload on the ball
The diameter of the ball indentation is measured with a micrometer
microscope, which has a transparent engraved scale in the field of view

Brinell Test Example

Brinell Test Method (continued)
Units: pressure per unit area
Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) = applied load divided by area of
the surface indenter

BHN
Where: BHN
L
D
d

2L

D D D d
2

= Brinell Hardness Number

= applied load (kg)
= diameter of the ball (10 mm)
= diameter of indentation (in mm)

Example: What is the Brinell hardness for a specimen with an indentation

of 5 mm is produced with a 3000 kg applied load.
Ans: BHN

2(3000kg )

(10mm) 10mm (10mm) 2 (5mm) 2

142.6kg / mm 2

Brinell Test Method (continued)

Range of Brinell Numbers
90 to 360 values with higher number indicating higher hardness
The deeper the penetration the higher the number
Brinell numbers greater than 650 should not be trusted because the diameter of
the indentation is too small to be measured accurately and the ball penetrator
may flatten out.
Rules of thumb
3000 kg load should be used for a BHN of 150 and above
1500 kg load should be used for a BHN between 75 and 300
500 kg load should be used for a BHN less than 100
The materials thickness should not be less than 10 times the depth of the indentation

 Advantages

the
Brinell Hardness Test

Well known throughout industry with well accepted results

Tests are run quickly (within 2 minutes)
Test inexpensive to run once the machine is purchased
Insensitive to imperfections (hard spot or crater) in the material

Limitations

Not well adapted for very hard materials, wherein the ball deforms excessively
Not well adapted for thin pieces
Not well adapted for case-hardened materials
Heavy and more expensive than other tests ($5,000)

Rockwell Test
Hardness is a function of the degree of indentation of the
test piece by action of an indenter under a given static load
(similar to the Brinell test)
Rockwell test has a choice of 3 different loads and three
different indenters
The loads are smaller and the indentation is shallower than
the Brinell test
Rockwell test is applicable to testing materials beyond the
scope of the Brinell test
Rockwell test is faster because it gives readings that do not
require calculations and whose values can be compared to
tables of results (ASTM E 18)

Rockwell Test Description

Specially designed machine that applies load through a
system of weights and levers
Indenter can be 1/16 in hardened steel ball, 1/8 in steel ball, or
120 diamond cone with a somewhat rounded point (brale)
Hardness number is an arbitrary value that is inversely related to
the depth of indentation
Scale used is a function of load applied and the indenter
Rockwell B- 1/16in ball with a 100 kg load
Rockwell C- Brale is used with the 150 kg load

Operation

Minor load is applied (10 kg) to set the indenter in material

Dial is set and the major load applied (60 to 100 kg)
Hardness reading is measured
Rockwell hardness includes the value and the scale letter

Rockwell Values
Scale

Indenter

A
B
C
D
E
F
G

Brale
1/16 in
Brale
Brale
1/8 in
1/16 in
1/16 in

Applied Load
(kg)
60
100
150
100
100
60
150

B Scale: Materials of medium hardness (0 to 100HRB) Most Common

C Scale: Materials of harder materials (> 100HRB) Most Common
Rockwell scales divided into 100 divisions with each division (point of
hardness) equal to 0.002mm in indentation. Thus difference between a
HRB51 and HRB54 is 3 x 0.002 mm - 0.006 mm indentation
The higher the number the harder the number

Rockwell and Brinell Conversion

For a Rockwell C values between -20 and 40, the Brinell
hardness is calculated by

1.42 x10 6
BHN
10040,
HR
For HRC values greater than
use
C
2.5 x10 4
BHN
For HRB values between
35 and
100 use
100
HR
C
7.3 x10 3
BHN
130 HRB

Rockwell and Brinell Conversion

For a Rockwell C values, HRC, values greater than 40,

Example,

2.5 x10 4
BHN
100 HRC

Convert the Rockwell hardness number HRc 60 to BHN

2.5 x10
BHN
100 60

BHN 625

Form of Polymers

Thermoplastic Material: A material that is solid,

that possesses significant elasticity at room
temperature and turns into a viscous liquid-like
material at some higher temperature. The process
is reversible

Polymer Form as a function of temperature

Glassy: Solid-like form, rigid, and hard
Rubbery: Soft solid form, flexible, and elasticTemp
Tm
Melt: Liquid-like form, fluid, elastic

Melt
p
m
e
T
g
is n

Rubbery

Tg

Glassy

re
c
In

Polymer
Form

Glass Transition Temperature, Tg

Glass Transition Temperature, Tg: The temperature by
which:
Below the temperature the material is in an immobile (rigid)
configuration
Above the temperature the material is in a mobile (flexible)
configuration

Transition is called Glass Transition because the

properties below it are similar to ordinary glass.
Transition range is not one temperature but a range over a
relatively narrow range (10 degrees). Tg is not precisely
measured, but is a very important characteristic.
Tg applies to all polymers (amorphous, crystalline, rubbers,
thermosets, fibers, etc.)

Glass Transition Temperature, Tg

Glass Transition Temperature, Tg: Defined as
the temperature wherein a significant the loss of modulus (or
stiffness) occurs
the temperature at which significant loss of volume occurs

ine

Cry
s

Vol.

ta l l

Modulus
(Pa)
or
(psi)

s
u
o
h
p
r
o
Am

Tg
-50C 50C 100C 150C 200C 250C

Temperature

Tg

Tg

-50C 50C 100C 150C 200C 250C

Temperature

Crystalline Polymers: Tm
Tm: Melting Temperature

Temp

Tm
Tg

Melt
Rubbery
Glassy

c
e
D

in
s
ea

p
m
e
gT

T > Tm, The order of the molecules is random (amorphous)

Tm >T >Tg, Crystallization begins at various nuclei and the order of the molecules is a mixture
of crystals Form
and random
Polymer

polymers (amorphous). Crystallization continues as T drops until maximum crystallinity is achieved. The amorphous regions are
rubbery and dont contribute to the stiffness. The crystalline regions are unaffected by temperature and are glassy and rigid.

T < Tg, The amorphous regions gain stiffness and become glassy

Crystalline Polymers Tg
Tg: Affected by Crystallinity level
High Crystallinity Level = high Tg
Low Crystallinity Level = low Tg

Modulus
(Pa)
or
(psi)

High Crystallinity
Medium Crystallinity
Low Crystallinity

Tg
-50C

50C

100C

Temperature

150C

200C

250C

Temperature Effects on Specific

Volume
T > Tm, The amorphous polymers volume decreases linearly with T.

us
o
h
p
r
o
m
A

Cry
s

ta l l

Specific
Volume

in

Tm > T >Tg, As crystals form the volume drops since the crystals are
significantly denser than the amorphous material.
T < Tg, the amorphous regions contracts linearly and causes a change in
slope

Tg
-50C

50C

100C

150C

Temperature

Tg
200C

250C

Elastomers
Elastomers are rubber like polymers that are thermoset or
thermoplastic
butyl rubber: natural rubber
thermoset: polyurethane, silicone
thermoplastic: thermoplastic urethanes (TPU), thermoplastic
elastomers (TPE), thermoplastic olefins (TPO), thermoplastic
rubbers (TPR)

Elastomers exhibit more elastic properties versus plastics

which plastically deform and have a lower elastic limit.
Rubbers have the distinction of being stretched 200% and
returned to original shape. Elastic limit is 200%

Rubbers

Rubbers have the distinction of being stretched 200%

and returned to original shape. Elastic limit is 200%
Natural rubber (isoprene) is produced from gum resin of
certain trees and plants that grow in southeast Asia,
Ceylon, Liberia, and the Congo.
The sap is an emulsion containing 40% water & 60% rubber particles

Vulcanization occurs with the addition of sulfur (4%).

Sulfur produces cross-links to make the rubber stiffer and harder.
The cross-linkages reduce the slippage between chains and results in
higher elasticity.
Some of the double covalent bonds between molecules are broken,
allowing the sulfur atoms to form cross-links.
Soft rubber has 4% sulfur and is 10% cross-linked.
Hard rubber (ebonite) has 45% sulfur and is highly cross-linked.

Vulcanizable Rubber
Typical tire tread
Natural rubber smoked sheet (100),
sulfur (2.5) sulfenamide (0.5), MBTS (0.1), strearic acid (3), zinc
oxide (3), PNBA (2), HAF carbon black (45), and mineral oil (3)

Typical shoe sole compound

SBR (styrene-butadiene-rubber) (100) and clay (90)

Typical electrical cable cover

polychloroprene (100), kaolin (120), FEF carbon black (15) and
mineral oil (12), vulcanization agent

Thermoplastic Elastomers
Polyurethanes
Have a hard block segment and soft block segment
Soft block corresponds to polyol involved in polymerization in ether based
Hard blocks involve the isocyanates and chain extenders

Polyesters are etheresters or copolyester thermoplastic

elastomer
Soft blocks contain ether groups are amorpous and flexible
Hard blocks can consist of polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)

Polyertheramide or polyetherblockamide elastomer

Hard blocks consits of a crystallizing polyamide
Soft

Hard Soft
Hard Soft Hard

Testing Elastomers
Modulus is low for elastomers and rubbers
Fig 6-47, 6-48, 6-50
Modulus depends upon
Modulus
Crosslinking = modulus (Pa)
or
Temp = modulus
(psi)

-50C 50C

100C 150C

Temperature

Rubbers have
large rubber region
Large elastic component
Can test over and over again
With same results

Modulus
(Pa)
or
(psi)

High modulus

Stress
(Pa)or
(psi)

Tg

Heavy crosslinking
Medium crosslinking
Low crosslinking Tm

Low modulus

Strain

200C 250C

Rubbery Region

Tg

Troom

Tm

Glasses and Ceramics Thermal

Viscosity- materials resistance to flow
Viscosity of glasses are between 50 and 500 P, whereas viscosity
of water and liquid metals are 0.01p

Viscosity of soda-lime glass from 25C to 1500C. (Fig 6-42)

Melting range is between 1200 and 1500C
Working range is between 700 and 900 C
Annealing Point
Annealing Point
Internal stresses can be relieved 20
Softening point at 700C Log
Viscosity = 1013.5 P

Glass transition

15

Viscosity
10
(poise)

Occurs around annealing point

Annealing Range

Working Range

5
0

Melting R
0

500

1000

Temperature, C

1500

Glasses and Ceramics Stresses

Thermal stresses occur during production of tempered glass.
Fig 6-43
High breaking strength of product is due to residual compressive
stress at the material surfaces.
Above Tg
No tension or compression

Air quenched surface below Tg

Compression on surface tension on the bottom

Slow cool to room temperature

Surface compression forces on tension inside.

Long Term Static Loading: Creep

Creep
Measures the effects of long-term application of loads that are below the elastic limit if
the material being tested.
Creep is the plastic deformation resulting from the application of a long-term load.
Creep is affected by temperature

Creep procedure
Hold a specimen at a constant elevated temperature under a fixed applied stress and
observe the strain produced.
Test that extend beyond 10% of the life expectancy of the material in service are
preferred.
Mark the sample in two locations for a length dimension.
Apply a load
Measure the marks over a time period and record deformation.

Creep Results
Creep versus time
Fixed
l0

lF
Tertiary Creep
Constant
Load

Creep
(in/in)

Secondary Creep
Primary Creep
Time (hours)

Short Term Conventional Testing

Tear

Flexible plastics and elastomers often fail in a tearing mode and

their resistance to tearing is often inadequately reflected in tensile
strength
Standard tear tests involve a variety of test specimen geometries
(angle tear, trouser tear, etc.) Figure 4.12
Conducted on a Universal testing machine or specialized equip
Involve a cut, slit, or nick which is made before the test.

Biaxial stress
Developed when a circular diaphragm, pipe, or container is
subjected to pressure (Fig 4.13)
Basis for quick-burst tests.
The pressure at failure (rupture), or the stress is measured