5 Conductors Dielectrics Capacitance

Chapter 05:
CONDUCTORS,
DIELECTRICS, AND
CAPACITANCE
In this chapter we intend to apply the laws and methods of the previous
chapters to some of the materials with which an engineer must work.
After defining current and current density and developing the
fundamental continuity equation, we shall consider a conducting
material and present Ohm's law in both its microscopic and macroscopic
forms. With these results we may calculate resistance values for a few
of the simpler geometrical forms that resistors may assume. Conditions
which must be met at conductor boundaries are next obtained, and this
knowledge enables us to introduce the use of images.
After a brief consideration of a general semiconductor, we shall
investigate the polarization of dielectric materials and define relative
permittivity, or the dielectric constant, an important engineering
parameter. Having both conductors and dielectrics, we may then put
them together to form capacitors. Most of the work of the previous
chapters will be required to determine the capacitance of the several
capacitors which we shall construct.
5.1 CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY

Current density may be related to the velocity of volume charge density at a
point.
Current is defined as the motion of positive charges, even though conduction in

metals takes place through the motion of electrons
Current density may be related to the

velocity of volume charge density at a
point.
This last result shows very clearly that charge in motion

constitutes a current. We call this type of current a convention
current, and J or v is the convection current density. Note that
the convection current density is related linearly to charge
density as well as to velocity.
5.2 CONTINUITY OF CURRENT
The principle of conservation of charge states simply that

charges can be neither created nor destroyed, although
equal amounts of positive and negative charge may be
simultaneously created, obtained by separation,
destroyed, or lost by recombination.
The current through the closed surface is
and this outward flow of positive charge must be balanced by
a decrease of positive charge (or perhaps an increase of
negative charge) within the closed surface.
the principle of conservation of charge requires
Equation (4) is the integral form of the continuity equation, and the
differential, or point, form is obtained by using the divergence theorem to
change the surface integral into a volume integral:
we have our point form of the continuity equation,
Remembering the physical interpretation of divergence, this equation

indicates that the current, or charge per second, diverging from a small
volume per unit volume is equal to the time rate of decrease of charge per
unit volume at every point.
5.3 METALLIC CONDUCTORS
the energies which may be possessed by electrons are grouped into broad ranges, or
``bands,'' each band consisting of very numerous, closely spaced, discrete levels. At a
temperature of absolute zero, the normal solid also has every level occupied, starting with
the lowest and proceeding in order until all the electrons are located. The electrons with
the highest (least negative) energy levels, the valence electrons, are located in the
valence band.
If there are permissible higher-energy levels in the valence band, or if the valence band
merges smoothly into a conduction band, then additional kinetic energy may be given to
the valence electrons by an external field, resulting in an electron flow. The solid is called
Let us first consider the conductor. Here the valence electrons, or conduction,
or free, electrons, move under the influence of an electric field. With a field E,
an electron having a charge Q= -e will experience a force
In free space the electron would accelerate and continuously increase its velocity
(and energy); in the crystalline material the progress of the electron is impeded by
continual collisions with the thermally excited crystalline lattice structure, and a
constant average velocity is soon attained. This velocity vd is termed the drift
velocity, and it is linearly related to the electric field intensity by the mobility of
the electron in the given material.
Where e is the mobility of an electron and is
positive by definition.
mobility is measured in the units of square meters per volt-second; typical

values are 0.0012 for aluminum, 0.0032 for copper, and 0.0056 for silver.
where e is the free-electron charge density, a

negative value.
where (conductivity=
sigma) is measured is
siemens per meter (S/m).
We call this equation the point form of Ohm's law; we shall

look at the more common form of Ohm's law shortly.
General expression for resistance when

the fields are nonuniform,
Fields in Materials
Materials contain charged particles
that respond to applied electric and
magnetic fields.
Materials are classified according to
the nature of their response to the
applied fields.
13
Classification of Materials
Conductors
Semiconductors
Dielectrics
Magnetic materials
14
Conductors
A conductor is a material in which
electrons in the outermost shell of
the electron migrate easily from
atom to atom.
Metallic materials are in general
good conductors.
15
Conduction Current
In an otherwise empty universe, a
constant electric field would cause an
electron to move with constant
acceleration.
E
a
-e
eE
a
me
e = 1.602 10-19 C
magnitude of electron charge

16
Conduction Current
(Contd)
In a conductor, electrons are constantly
colliding with each other and with the

fixed nuclei, and losing momentum.
The net macroscopic effect is that the
electrons move with a (constant) drift
velocity vd which is proportional to the
electric field.
v d e E
Electron mobility
17
Conductor in an
Electrostatic Field
To have an electrostatic field, all
charges must have reached their
equilibrium positions (i.e., they are
stationary).
Under such static conditions, there
must be zero electric field within the
conductor. (Otherwise charges would
continue to flow.)
18
Conductor in an
Electrostatic Field (Contd)
If the electric field in which the conductor
is immersed suddenly changes, charge
flows temporarily until equilibrium is
once again reached with the electric field
inside the conductor becoming zero.
In a metallic conductor, the
establishment of equilibrium takes place
in about 10-19 s - an extraordinarily short
amount of time indeed.
19
Conductor in an
There are two important consequences to
the fact that the electrostatic field inside
a metallic conductor is zero:
The conductor is an equipotential body.
The charge on a conductor must reside
entirely on its surface.
A corollary of the above is that the
electric field just outside the conductor
must be normal to its surface.
20
Conductor in an
21
Macroscopic versus
Microscopic Fields
In our study of electromagnetics, we
use Maxwells equations which are
written in terms of macroscopic
quantities.
The lower limit of the classical
domain is about 10-8 m = 100
angstroms. For smaller dimensions,
quantum mechanics is needed.
22
Boundary Conditions on the Electric

Field at the Surface of a Metallic
Conductor
a n
Et 0
Dn a n D qes
23
- - E=0
+ + +
Induced Charges on
Conductors
The BCs given above imply that if a
conductor is placed in an externally
applied electric field, then
the field distribution is distorted so that
the electric field lines are normal to the
conductor surface
a surface charge is induced on the
conductor to support the electric field
24
Applied and Induced

Electric Fields
The applied electric field (Eapp) is the field that
exists in the absence of the metallic
conductor (obstacle).
The induced electric field (Eind) is the field that
arises from the induced surface charges.
The total field is the sum of the applied and
induced electric fields.
E E app E ind
25
5.4 CONDUCTOR PROPERTIES AND BOUNDARY

CONDITIONS
the desired boundary conditions for the conductor-free space boundary in

electrostatics,
5.5 THE METHOD OF IMAGES
5.6 SEMICONDUCTORS
5.7 THE NATURE OF DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
5.8 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR PERFECT DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
5.9 CAPACITANCE
Let us designate the potential difference

between M2 and M1 as V0 . We
may now define the capacitance of this
two-conductor system as the ratio of the
magnitude of the total charge on either
conductor to the magnitude of the
potential difference between conductors,
5.10 SEVERAL CAPACITANCE EXAMPLES

As a first brief example we choose a coaxial cable or coaxial capacitor of inner radius a,
outer radius b, and length L. the potential difference is given as Eq.
, and we find the capacitance very simply by dividing this by the total charge L
L in the length L.
Thus,
consider a spherical capacitor formed of two concentric spherical conducting shells of radius
a and b; b > a. The expression for the electric field was obtained previously by Gauss's law,
where the region between the spheres is a dielectric with permittivity . The
expression for potential difference was found from this by the line integral
Here Q represents the total charge on the inner
sphere, and the capacitance becomes
5.11 CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE

LINE

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Chapter 05:

5.1 CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY

Current is defined as the motion of positive charges, even though conduction in

Current density may be related to the

This last result shows very clearly that charge in motion

5.2 CONTINUITY OF CURRENT

The principle of conservation of charge states simply that

the principle of conservation of charge requires

we have our point form of the continuity equation,

Remembering the physical interpretation of divergence, this equation

5.3 METALLIC CONDUCTORS

mobility is measured in the units of square meters per volt-second; typical

where e is the free-electron charge density, a

We call this equation the point form of Ohm's law; we shall

General expression for resistance when

magnitude of electron charge

colliding with each other and with the

Boundary Conditions on the Electric

Applied and Induced

5.4 CONDUCTOR PROPERTIES AND BOUNDARY

the desired boundary conditions for the conductor-free space boundary in

5.5 THE METHOD OF IMAGES

5.8 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR PERFECT DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

Let us designate the potential difference

5.10 SEVERAL CAPACITANCE EXAMPLES

5.11 CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE

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