C2.

1 Structure and
bonding

C2 1.1 Chemical bonding

Key words:
A compound contains two or more elements which are chemically combined
Covalent bonding sharing electrons
Ionic bonding transferring electrons

Chemical bonding: involves either transferring or sharing electrons

in the highest occupied energy level (outer shell) of atoms to
achieve the electronic structure of a noble gas (full outer shell)
Compounds are usually very different from the elements that have
combined together to make them, for example, Sodium reacting with
Chlorine gas to form sodium chloride
HEAT

2Na
Sodium

+
+

Cl2
chlorine

2NaCl
sodium chloride

Representing ionic bonding

Key words
Ionic bond The electrostatic force of attraction between positively and
negatively charged ions
Ion A charged particle produced by the loss or gain of electrons

Ionic bonds form between METALS and NON-METALS.

Ionic bonding involves the transfer of ELECTRONS.
Metallic Ions are POSITIVELY charged (ANIONS), they LOSE electrons.
Non-metallic elements are NEGATIVELY charged (CATIONS), they GAIN
electrons
Representing ionic bonding
The elements in Group 1 react
with the elements in Group 7
Groups 1 elements can each
lose one electron to gain the
stable electronic structure of a
noble gas
This electron can be given to an
The electrostatic attraction between the
atom from Group 7, which then
oppositely charged Na+ ions and Cl- ions
also achieves the stable
is called ionic bonding
electronic structure of a noble

Common ions
To become positively charged an atom must lose electrons. To become
negatively charged and atom must gain electrons.

C2 1.2 Ionic bonding

Key words
The ionic bonding between
called a giant structure

Sodium chloride, NaCl,

forms when sodium and
chlorine react together. It
contains oppositely
charged ions held
together by strong
electrostatic forces of
attraction the ionic
bonds. The ions form a
regular lattice in which
the ionic bonds act in all
directions

charged particles result in an arrangement of ions

(giant lattice)

Magnesium oxide: sometimes the atoms

reacting need to gain or lose two electrons to
gain a stable noble gas structure
ions have the
while oxide ions

Magnesium
formula Mg2+,
have the formula O2-

Calcium Chloride: each calcium atom (2, 8, 8,

2) needs to lose two electrons but each chlorine
atom (2, 8, 7) needs to gain only one electron.
This means that two chlorine atoms
react with every one calcium atom,
CaCl2

C2 1.3 Formulae of ionic compounds

Key points
The charges on the ions in an ionic compound always cancel each other
out (they are neutral)
The formula of an ionic compound shows the ratio of ions present in the
compound
Ionic
compound

Ratio of ions in
the compound

Formula of the
compound

Na+ : Cl1:1

NaCl

Magnesiu
m oxide

Mg2+ : O21:1

MgO

Calcium
chloride

Ca2+ : Cl1:2

CaCl2

Sodium
chloride

More complicated ions:

Name of ion

Formula of ion

Hydroxide

OH-

Nitrate

NO3-

Carbonate

CO32-

sulfate

SO

2-

Groups of metals
The atoms of Group 1 elements
form 1+ ions, e.g. Li+
The atoms of group 2 elements
form 2+ ions, e.g. Ca2+
Groups of non-metals
The atoms of Group 7 elements
form 1- ions, e.g. FThe atoms of Group 6 elements
form 2- ions, e.g. S2-

C2 1.4 Covalent bonding

Key words
Covalent bonding the attraction between two atoms that share one or more pairs of electrons
Simple molecule simple covalently bonded structures, e.g. HCl or H2O
Giant covalent structure huge numbers of atoms held together by a network of covalent
bonds, e.g. diamond or graphite

When atoms share

pairs of electrons,
they form covalent
bonds.
These bonds
between atoms are
strong
Some covalently
bonded substances
consist of simple
molecules such as
H2, Cl2, O2, HCl, H2O,
NH3 and CH4
Others have giant
covalent structures

Example: Hydrogen chloride:

+
Simples covalent molecules:
Oxygen O2
Hydrogen H2
Carbon Dioxide Water H2O
CO2

Methane
CH4

Giant covalent structures:

Diamon
d

Graphite

Silico
n
dioxid
e

C2 1.5 Metals
Key points
The atoms in metals are built up layer upon layer in a regular pattern,
this means they form crystals.
They are another example
of a giant structure
We can think of metallic bonding as positively charged metal ions
which are held together by electrons from the outermost shell of each
metal atom. Strong electrostatic attraction between the negatively
charges electrons and positively charged
ions bond the metal ions to each other
The delocalised electrons are free to move throughout the
giant metallic lattice, they form a sea of free electrons

C2.2 Structure and

properties

C2 2.1 Giant ionic structures

Conduct electricity when MOLTEN (melted) and in an AQUEOUS
SOLUTION (dissolved in water)
DO NOT conduct electricity as a SOLID
Have high MELTING and BOILING points
Usually SOLID at ROOM TEMPERATURE

Ion = an atom with a positive or negative charge.

Cations = metal atoms lose electrons to form positively charged ions called
cations.
Anions = Non-metal atoms gain electrons to form negatively ions called
anions.
Ionic compounds have a lattice
structure, with a regular
arrangement of ions, held
together by electrostatic forces
between oppositely charged
ions.

C2 2.2 Simple molecules

Simple covalent molecules:
Low melting point
Low boiling point
Poor conductor of electricity
Why?
Because there are weak
intermolecular forces between
molecules.
Charge?
Simple molecules have no overall
charge, so they cannot carry
electrical charge. Therefore,
substances made of simple
molecules do not conduct electricty.

Ammonia

C2 2.3 Giant Covalent structure

DIAMOND
In diamond, all the electrons in
the outer shell of each carbon
atom (2.4) are involved in
forming covalent bonds.
Diamond is very hard it is the
hardest natural substance, so it is
often used to make jewellery and
cutting tools.
Diamond has a very high
melting and boiling point a
lot of energy is needed to break
the covalent bonds.
Diamond cannot conduct
electricity there are no free
electrons or ions to
carry a charge.

GRAPHITE
In graphite, only three of the four
electrons in the outer shell of each
carbon atom (2.4) are involved in
covalent bonds.
Graphite is soft and slippery
layers can easily slide over each
other because the weak forces of
attraction are easily broken. This is
why graphite is used as a lubricant.
Graphite conducts electricity
the only non-metal
to do so. The
free electron from each carbon atom
means that each layer has
delocalized electrons,
which can carry charge.
It is often used as an
electrode for this reason.

C2 2.4 Giant metallic structure

We can bend and shape metals because the layers of atoms (or ions)
in a giant metallic structure can slide over each other

Delocalised electrons in metals enable electricity and heat

to pass through the metal easily

Alloys are made from two or more different metals. The different sized
atoms of the metals distort the layers in the structure, making it more
difficult for them to slide over each other, and so make the alloys
harder than pure metals
Pure metal:

Alloy
:

If a shape memory alloy is deformed, it can return to its original shape

on heating

C2 2.5 The properties of polymers

The properties of polymers depend on:
The monomers used to make it. Eg. Poly(ethene) and Nylon
The conditions chosen to carry out the reaction. Low
density (LD) and high density (HD) poly(ethene) are produced
using different catalysts and reaction conditions.
Thermosoftening polymers consist of individual, tangled
polymer chains. Thermosetting polymers consist of
polymer chains with cross-links between them so that
they do not melt when they are heated.

C2 2.6 Nanoscience
Nanoscience is the study of small particles that are between 1 and 100 nanometres in size
1 nanometre (1 nm) = 1 x 10-9 metres (0.000 000 001m or a billionth of a metre)

Nanoparticles show different properties to the same materials in bulk and

have a high surface area to volume ratio.
This may lead to the development of new computers, new catalysts, new
coatings, highly selective sensors, stronger and lighter construction
materials, and new cosmetics such as sun tan creams and deodorants
New developments in
nanoscience are very
exciting but will need
more research into
possible issues that
might arise from their
increased use

C2 3.1 Atomic Structure

Keywords
Mass number the total number of protons and neutrons in an atoms
nucleus
Atomic number the number of protons in an atoms nucleus
Isotope atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers
of neutrons.
Particle

Relative
mass

Proton

Neutron

Electron

very
small

Number of protons =
atomic number
Number of electrons =
atomic number
Number of neutrons =
mass number atomic
number

Nucleus
(protons and neutrons)

Electron

12

Mass number

C
6

Atomic number

Isotopes- Same atomic no. different mass

no.
1
2
3
1

H1

H
Protons = 1
Electron = 1
Neutron = 0

Protons = 1
Electron = 1
Neutron = 1

Protons = 1
Electron = 1
Neutron = 2

C2 3.2 Masses of atoms and moles

Keywords
Relative atomic mass (Ar) mass of an atom compared to the mass of
carbon-12.
(Same as an atoms mass number)
Relative formula mass (Mr) - the sum of the relative atomic masses of
the atoms in a molecule.
Mole the relative formula mass of a substance in grams

RELATIVE FORMULA MASS

EXAMPLE 1

NaCl
Ar: Na (23) Cl(35.5)
Mr = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
EXAMPLE 2

H2O
Ar: H(1) Cl(16)
Mr = 1 + 1 + 16 = 18

Moles

The mass of 1 mole

of carbon - 12 is 12
g.
The mass of 1 mole
of NaCl is 58.5 g.
The mass of 1 mole
of H2O is 18 g.

C2 3.3 , 3.4 Percentages and Equations

Percentage mass
x
Ar
of an element =
x 100
in a compound
compound

Number of atoms of element

Mr of

What percentage

of the mass of magnesium

oxide (MgO) is magnesium?

H2 + Cl2

Ar : Mg (24), O (16)

Percentage by mass
24
of magnesium in
x100
magnesium oxide

=
24+16
= 60 %

Chemical equations

2HCl

Chemical equations tell

us the number of
molecules that are reacted
and produced.
The total number of
atoms on either side of the
is the same.
2equation
NH

3 H2 +
N2

3
This equation tells us that 3 hydrogen molecules reacts with 1
nitrogen molecule to make 2 ammonia (NH3) molecules.

C2 Yields
Keywords
Yield the amount of useful product obtained from a
reaction.
Products need to be made as cheaply as
possible. Chemists need to make sure
the reaction creates as much product as
possible.
Theoretical Yield
Maximum calculated amount of a
product that could be formed from a
given amount of reactants.
Actual Yield
The actual amount of product obtained
from a chemical reaction.
Percentage Yield
actual yield
Percentage yield =
x 100

Yield is usually less than

expected 4 reasons:
1. Reaction may be
incomplete
2. Some product is lost
3. Other unwanted
reactions may occur
making a different
product.
4. Reaction may be
reversible

C2 3.6 Reversible reactions

Reversible reaction a reaction where products can react together to
make the original reactants.

This arrow shows a reaction

is reversible.

EXAMPLES
in acid
in alkali
HLit
Lit

H+

Red litmus
Blue litmus

heat

ammonium chloride
hydrogen chloride

ammonia

C2 3.7 Analysis Substances

Paper Chromatography - a technique used to separate mixtures of

soluble substances.

Instrumental Methods
Paper chromatography
can be used to detect
additives

Modern instrumental analysis is now

preferred in industry.

Samples are put onto filter

paper.

Advantages are modern instrumental

analysis is that it is:

The paper is placed in a

small amount of solvent
(usually water)

Accurate
Rapid
Sensitive (you can use very small

As the solvent rises the

chemicals in the substances
separate.

Additive B

Additive A

unknown

The diagram on the left

shows a chromatogram.
You can see the unknown is
a mixture of A and B

samples.

The main disadvantage is that it is

more expensive.

C2 3.8 Instrumental analysis

Gas chromatography this is an instrumental method used to separate
compounds.
Mass spectrometer this is an instrumental method used identify
substances. It does this by measuring its relative molecular mass (Mr)

How gas chromatography

works+:
1. Mixture is vaporised.
2. A carrier gas moves the vapour
through the coiled column.
3. The different compounds have different
attractions to the material in the
column and therefore travel at different
speeds.
4. Different compounds are detected at
different times, we say they have
different retention times.
5. A gas chromatograph is produced as
seen on the right.
6. This chromatograph shows there was a
mixture of 6 different compounds it
also shows most was compound F and
least was compound A

C2 4.1 Rates of Reactions

Keywords
Rate of reaction The speed at which a reaction
takes place

Examples

Fast reactions = Burning,

explosions
Slow reaction = Rusting, apple
browning

the amount of reactants used

or products formed
Rate of reaction =
time

The slope of the line at any given time tells us

the rate of a reaction at that time. The
steeper the line the faster the reaction.

How to measure the

sate of a reaction.
1. Measure the rate at which
the mass of a reaction
changes if a gas is given
off.

2. Measure the volume of

gas produced in a
reaction at given time
intervals.

slow
fast

3. Measure the rate at

which a solid appears.
Do this by timing how
long it takes for a
solution to go cloudy.

C2 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 Collision Theory and changing the rate

Keywords
Concentration A measure of how much solute is dissolved in a fixed volume
of solvent.
Surface area The total area of all the surfaces of an object or substance
Collision Theory

For particles to react they

need to collide.

They also need enough

energy to react when they
collide

The minimum energy

needed is called the
activation energy.

2. Concentration

More concentrated
= more particles

More particles =

more

collisions =
faster reaction

Factors affecting Rate

1. Temperature
Higher temperature = faster reaction
e.g. And egg cooks faster in boiling water than warm
water
Particles have more energy = move faster
More effective collisions (collide with more
energy)
Collidearea
more (SA)
frequently
3. Surface

Solid broken up into smaller pieces = larger SA

Greater surface area = faster reaction
More surface area = more particles on the
surface therefore more frequent collisions
A = Smaller SA (block)
B = Larger SA (powder)

C2 4.5, 4.6 Catalysts

Keywords
Catalyst A substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction
without being used up in the reaction

FACTS:

Many chemical processes use catalysts to

increase rate of production of products
Catalysts help to lower the temperature and
pressure needed = less energy needed =
saves money
Different chemical reactions require different
catalysts.
Catalysts lower the activation energy of a
reaction.
Catalysts are normally used as powders or pellets to
give them as big surface area as possible.

Catalysts
disadvantages
Catalysts are often
transition metals. These
can be toxic. If they get
into the environment they
can build up in living things.

C2 4.7, 4.9 Exothermic and

Endothermic reactions

Facts:
During a chemical reaction there is usually
a transfer of energy between the reactant
and the surroundings.

Keywords
Endothermic reaction that takes heat energy in, decreasing the temperature of
the reaction mixture and its surroundings
Exothermic reaction that releases heat energy, increasing the temperature of
the reaction mixture and its surroundings
Endothermic
Takes in heat energy / temperature decreases.

Endothermic reactions include:

Photosynthesis
Dissolving ammonium nitrate
Thermal decomposition

Exothermic
Gives out heat energy / temperature increases
Most reactions are exothermic
All combustion reactions are exothermic
E.g. Methane + Oxygen
Explosions release a lot of heat and gases
very quickly

Using energy transfers from

reactions

Exothermic
Hand warmers
Self heating cans.
Endothermic
Cold packs

C2 4.8 Energy and

reversible reactions

In a reversible reaction one reaction is exothermic and the other

endothermic.
Energy absorbed = endothermic

The amount of energy

absorbed in one
direction is always the
exact same amount of
energy released in the
other direction.

Energy released = exothermic

Know this example
endothermic

CuSO4.5H2O
5H2O

exothermic
Hydrated copper sulphate
water

BLUE

CuSO 4
Anhydrous copper sulphate

WHITE

C2 5.1 Acids and

Alkalis

Keywords
Acid A substance that produce H+ ions in water.
Alkali A soluble base that produces OH- in water.
Base A substance that neutralises an acid

pH Scale:
Universal indicator is
used to tell you pH.
pH
pH
pH

1-6- Acid
7- Neutral
8-14 Alkali-

An important
alkali is ammonium salts which
are used as fertilisers

State Symbols
State symbols are used in
equations and tell you
whether something is a
solid, liquid, gas or an
aqueous solution
Solid (s)
Liquid (l)
Gas
(g)
*
Aqueous solution (aq)
*Is when a soluble solid is
dissolved in water

C2 5.2 Naming Salts

Keywords
Salt:Compound formed when hydrogen in an acid is
replaced by metal.
Salts made when metals react nitric acid are called nitrates.
Lithium

+ Nitric acid

Lithium Nitrate + Hydrogen

Salts made when metals react with sulfuric acids are called
sulfates.
Potassium + Sulfuric Acid Potassium Sulfate + Hydrogen
Salts made when metals react with hydrochloric acid are called chlorides.
Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen

C2 5.2-5.3 Making Salts

From Acids And bases

Keywords
Neutralisation- Reaction between acid and base
Precipitate- An insoluble solid formed by a reaction in a
solution.
Making
Soluble Salts- Acid and Metals

Making Soluble Salts- Acid and Bases

Salts can be made by reacting an acid

and metal
Acid + Metal a Salt + Hydrogen
Making Soluble Salts-Acids and Alkalis
Salts can be made by reacting an acid
with an alkali.
Acid + Alkali a Salt + Water
Practical- An indicator can be used to
show when the acid and alkali have
completed reacted.
Evaporate the water to form salt
crystals
Neutralisation
symbol equation:

H+(aq) + OH(aq) H2O(l)

Salts can be made by reacting an acid

with a base.
Acid + Bases a Salt + Water
Practical: A base is added to the acid
until no more will react. Any left over
solid is filtered off.
Evaporate the water to form salt
crystals
Making Insoluble saltsCombing two salt solutions can make an
insoluble solid form.
The solid formed is called a precipitate.

C2 5.4-5.5 Electrolysis
Keywords

Electrolysis: Decomposing a compound into elements using energy from a D.C

supply.
Oxidation: Lose Electrons
Reduction:Gain Electrons

FACTS
To do electrolysis you must dissolve or melt
the compound so the ions are free to move.
-Positive ions go to negative electrode and
are reduced.
-Negative ions go to the positive electrode
and oxidised.

When you do electrolysis with solutions:

At the negative electrode: Metal will be produced
on the electrode if it is less reactive than hydrogen.
Hydrogen will be produced if the metal is more
reactive than hydrogen.
At the positive electrode: oxygen is formed at
positive electrode unless you have a halide ion (Cl-,
I-, Br-) then you will get chlorine, bromine or iodine
formed at that electrode.

C2 5.6 Extraction of
Aluminium
-Aluminum is manufactured by
electrolysis of molten aluminum
oxide.
-Aluminum oxide has a very high
melting point so is mixed with molten
cryolite to lower the temperature
required to carry out the electrolysis.
-Aluminium goes to the negative
electrode and sinks to bottom.
-Oxygen forms at positive electrodes.
The oxygen reacts with the carbon
electrode making carbon dioxide
causing damage. The electrode needs
replaced due to this reaction.

C2 5.7-8 Extraction of
Aluminium and electroplating
What will you get if you electrolyse
brine?
Brine is Sodium Chloride Solution
Positive electrode- Chlorine gas is
formed
Negative electrode- Hydrogen gas is
formed
Uses of the products from the
electrolysis of brine
Chlorine Gas- Bleach and PVC
Hydrogen gas- Food industrymaking margarine
Sodium hydroxide- Bleach and
soap

What is left behind in solution:

Sodium
Ions andThe
Hydroxide
Electroplating:
coating ions
an object
which
sodium
with amake
thin layer
of hydroxide.
metal by
electrolysis.
This can protect the metal of make it
look more attractive.
E.G Jewellery and cutlery