Chapter 6

Job Analysis
and Design

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Define the terms job analysis, job description, and job
specification.
2. Examine how job analysis is used to inform an
organization's HRM practices.
3. Compare four methods used to collect job analysis
information.
4. Analyze occupational data available from the
Occupational Information Network.
5. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the
mechanistic and motivational approaches to job design.
6. Describe why competencies are becoming more popular
with some organizations.

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Organizations evolved because
The mission and objectives of most institutions are
too large for any one person to accomplish
There must be a systematic way to
determine which employees should
perform which tasks
The cornerstone of an organization is the set of
jobs performed by its employees
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 Job analysis is vital to any HRM program
and answers such questions as

How long does it take to complete important tasks?

Which tasks are grouped together as a job?

Can a job be designed so that performance is enhanced?

What behaviors are needed to perform the job?

What traits and experience suit a person to the job?

Can job analysis information help develop HRM programs?

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Many use the terms of job analysis
interchangeably
Experts use them precisely, to avoid confusion and
misinterpretation
Precision is required by federal and state legislation

Definitions provided by the federal

government:
Job analysis: a purposeful, systematic process for collecting
information on the important work-related aspects of a job
Job description: the principal product of a job analysis. It
represents a written summary of the job as an identifiable
organizational unit

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Job specification: a written explanation of the
knowledge, skills, abilities, traits, and other
characteristics (KSAOs) necessary for effective
performance on a given job
Tasks: Coordinated and aggregated series of work
elements used to produce an output
Position: the responsibilities and duties performed by an
individual. There are as many positions in an
organization as there are employees
Job: group of positions that are similar in their duties,
such as computer programmer
Job family: group of jobs that have similar duties

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6-7
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Recruitment The data Job design/
collected is the redesign
foundation for
Selection other HRM Compensation
activities

Training Performance
evaluation

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There may no longer be a choice about
whether job analysis should be conducted
Guidelines and judicial recommendations regarding
civil rights and EEO laws are clear
The question is how to conduct a legally defensible job
analysis
Job analysis plays an important role in the
Uniform Guidelines on Employee
Selection Procedures (1978)
A set of policies designed to minimize or prevent
workplace discrimination practices

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 Job
Jobanalysis
analysisisiscritical
criticalto
toassessments
assessmentsof
of
discrimination under most employment-
discrimination under most employment-
related
relatedlaws
laws
For
Forjob
jobanalysis
analysisto
tobe
beviewed
viewedfavorably
favorably
by
bythe
thecourts,
courts,ititmust
must
Yield
Yieldaathorough,
thorough,clear
clearjob
jobdescription
description
Assess
Assessthe
thefrequency
frequency&&importance
importanceof
ofjob
jobbehaviors
behaviors
Allow
Allowaccurate
accurateassessment
assessmentof
ofthe
theknowledge,
knowledge,skills,
skills,
abilities,
abilities,and
andKSAOs
KSAOsrequired
requiredbybythe
thejob
job
Determine
Determinethe
theKSAOs
KSAOsimportant
importantfor
foreach
eachjob
jobduty
duty

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 To minimize
Job analysis uses
resistance

1. Recruitment and 1. Communicate

selection why job analysis
is important
2. Training & career
development 2. Explain how the
information will
3. Compensation
be used
4. Strategic planning

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 Decided during the planning process

Hire a temporary Use supervisors,

Employ a full-time
analyst from the job incumbents,
job analyst
outside or both

Strengths and weaknesses

Incumbents know Involvement may

Incumbents have
what work is increase
a hard time being
actually being acceptance of
objective
done work changes

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6-12
Affects choice of analyst Selected person should

Location and Thoroughly

complexity of the jobs understand people,
How receptive jobs, and the total
incumbents are to organization system
an external analyst Understand how work
The ultimate purpose should flow within the
of the analysis organization

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6-13
 An overview of the organization
and its jobs is required
Before beginning job
analysis Provides understanding of work flow

Line and staff functions

An organization chart
Number of vertical organizational levels
presents the
relationships among
departments and units Number of functional departments
of the firm, as well as
Formal reporting relationships

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A process chart shows how a
specific set of jobs relate to each
other
Does not show structural relationships among
jobs
Shows the activities and work necessary to
produce a desired product or service

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 Observation
Observation

Job
Job data
data Interview
Interview
collection
collection
data
data Questionnaires
Questionnaires
Incumbent
Incumbent diaries
diaries or
or logs
logs

Collected
Collected
In
In each
each
method, Studied
Studied in
in terms
terms of
of tasks
tasks completed
completed
method, jobjob (job-oriented
information
information (job-oriented analysis)
analysis)
is
is
Analyzed
Analyzed in
in terms
terms of
of behaviors
behaviors
(work-oriented)
(work-oriented)

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 The job analysis information format (JAIF) provides
core information for any job analysis method

Questionnaire answers are

Provides a thorough picture
used to structure the data
of the job, job duties, and
collection technique
requirements
selected

Incumbents and supervisors may not

view a job in the same way

Dont assume that all

Collect information from a
have the same amount
variety of incumbents
of job knowledge

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6-18
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Used for jobs that require
manual, standardized,
and short-job-cycle
activities
Not used if job involves
significant mental activity
Job analysts must be
trained to:
Observe relevant job
behaviors
Be as unobtrusive as
possible

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6-19
Interviewing job incumbents is often done in
combination with observation
The most widely used technique
Allows the job analyst to talk with job incumbent

Interviews can be conducted with a:

Single incumbent
Group of incumbents
Supervisor who is familiar with the job

A structured set of questions is used so

answers can be compared
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Interviews are difficult to standardize

Different interviewers may ask different questions

The same interviewer might ask

different questions of different respondents
Information may be unintentionally
distorted by the interviewer
Costs can be high, especially if group
interviews arent practical

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Questionnaires are the least costly data
collection method
They collect large amounts of data in a short time
A structured questionnaire includes specific
questions about the job, working conditions,
and equipment
An open-ended format permits job incumbents to
use their own words and ideas to describe
the job
The format and structure of a
questionnaire are debatable issues

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 Keep it
short Keep it simple
To
Tomake
make aa
questionnaire
questionnaire
easier
easierto
touse
use
Explain what it Test it before
is being used for using it

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6-23
The diary or log is a recording by
incumbents of
Job duties
Frequency of the duties
When the duties are accomplished

Most people are not disciplined enough to

keep a log
Kept properly, the log permits an examination of
routine duties and exceptions
The diary or log is useful when analyzing jobs that
are difficult to observe

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There
Thereisisno
noagreement
agreement Interviews should not be the sole
about
aboutwhich
whichmethod
methodof of data collection method
job
jobanalysis
analysisyields
yieldsthe
the
best Certain methods may be better
bestinformation
information
for a given situation

The purpose of the analysis

Most
Mostorganizations
organizations
base
basetheir
theirchoice
choiceon
on
Time and budget constraints

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6-25
Many organizations use multimethod job
analysis
The analyst interviews incumbents and supervisors in
conjunction with on-site observation
A task survey based on expert judgments is
constructed and administered
A statistical analysis of the responses is conducted

A comprehensive process is relatively

expensive and time-consuming
The quality of information derived from a compre-
hensive approach is strongly endorsed by courts

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 Functional
Functional
job
job analysis
analysis

Position
Position analysis
analysis
questionnaire
questionnaire

Management
Management
position
position description
description
questionnaire
questionnaire

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6-28
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Functional job analysis (FJA) is the result
of 60 years of research on analyzing and
describing jobs
Conceived in the late 1940s
Developed to improve job classifications in the
Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)
DOT descriptions helped job analysts
learn what was involved in a particular job
FJA could then be used to elaborate and more
thoroughly describe the content of a job
The goal was creating a common language for
accurately describing jobs

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FJA assumes jobs can be described in
terms of basic relationships the worker has
with the work
Physically relating to things
Using mental resources to process data
Interacting with people

Using behavioral terms, each relationship

can be organized along a continuum of
complexity
Lowest to highest

Each job has a quantitative score

Jobs with similar ratings are assumed to be similar

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6-31
6-31
 Replacedthe
Replaced theDOT
DOT

Internetaccessible
Internet accessible Moreuser
More userfriendly
friendly
database
database thanDOT
than DOT

Describes
Describes Categorizesdata
datainto
into
occupations,worker
worker Reduced12,000
12,000 Categorizes
occupations, Reduced sixgroups
six groups(O*NET
(O*NET
KSAOs,workplace
KSAOs, workplace jobsto
jobs toabout
about1,000
1,000 ContentModel)
Model)
requirements Content
requirements

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6-33
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 Developed by researchers at Purdue University
Contains 195 items
Requires considerable experience and a high level
of reading comprehension to complete properly
Often filled out by a trained job analyst, who
must decide whether each item applies to
a particular job

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 PAQ Other
Other job
job
Information
Information PAQ Sections
Sections character-
input character-
input istics
istics

Mental
Mental Job
Job
processes
processes context
context
Work
Work
output
output

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6-35
 Decision making
Computerized
scoring based
Communication
on these
Social responsibilities
dimensions
Performing skilled activities
Scores allow Being physically active
creation of
job profiles Operating vehicles, equipment
and
comparisons Processing information

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6-36
 Widely
Widelyused
used
and Valid
Valid
andresearched
researched
PAQ
PAQ
Advantages
Advantages
Effective
Effectiveway
waytoto
Effective
Effectivetool
toolfor
foraa establish
establishdifferences
differences
variety
varietyof
ofpurposes
purposes ininrequired
requiredabilities
abilities

Reliable,
Reliable,with
with
little
littlevariance
variance

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6-37
PAQ disadvantages:
Requires time and patience to complete
No specific work activities are described, so
behavioral activities performed in jobs may
distort actual work task differences
Example: A typist and ballet dancer may have
similar profiles; both require fine motor skills
Ratings might represent the job analysts
stereotype about the work, rather than actual
differences among jobs

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Conducting a job analysis for
managerial jobs is challenging
because of
Disparity across positions
Levels in the hierarchy
Industry differences

An attempt to systematically analyze

managerial jobs was conducted at
Control Data Corporation
The result is the management position
description questionnaire (MPDQ)
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 Checklist of 208 items
related to the concerns Comprehensive description
and responsibilities of managerial work
of managers

Intended for use

across most
industrial settings

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6-40
 The
Thelatest
latestversion
versionof
ofthe
theMPDQ
MPDQhas
has15
15sections
sections

Planning, Controlling Consulting,

organizing innovating
Coordinating Monitoring Knowledge, Comments,
business skills, abilities reactions

Decision Administering Supervising Contacts

making

Representing Overall ratings Organization General info

chart

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6-42
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The common metric questionnaire
(CMQ) is another method of
quantitative job analysis
Completed by a job incumbent
Requires a lower reading level
More behaviorally concrete, making it easier
for incumbents to rate their jobs
Applicable to exempt and nonexempt positions

Research on job analysis is being

conducted in Europe
Focuses on alternative quantitative methods

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The job description is one of the primary outputs of
a systematic job analysis
It is a written description of what the job entails
It is hard to over-emphasize how important thorough,
accurate, and current job descriptions are
Changes in recent years have increased the need for
job descriptions
Massive organizational restructurings
Need for new, creative ways to motivate and reward
workers
Accelerated rate at which technology is changing work
environments
New, more stringent regulation of employment
practices
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There is no standard format for a job description,
but most include

Job title

Summary

Equipment

Environment

Activities

A job specification evolves from the job description

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6-45
 R. J. Harveys guidelines for choosing the characteristics
included on a job specification

Job tasks must be Experts, incumbents, or

identified and rated in supervisors should specify
terms of importance, using the skills needed to
sound analysis techniques perform job tasks

The Any other characteristics Each skill

importance necessary for performing the job identified
of each skill should be identified must be
must be (physical requirements, linked to a
rated professional certification) job task

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6-46
Any trait or skill stated on the job
specification should be required for
performance of the job
The Americans with Disabilities Act makes the job
analysts responsibilities even greater in this area
Differentiate between essential and
nonessential skills
Essential skills are those for which alternative
ways of accomplishing the job are not possible
Nonessential skills can be accommodated by
changing the work methods of the job

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6-48
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 The fundamental nature of work may be changing

Functional areas are not as important as

they once were for defining a job
After reengineering of processes, new job
responsibilities may be poorly defined
Organizations must continually adapt to changing
business environments
Reengineering is likely in most organizations
Job analysts create descriptions of jobs as they currently
exist; they must also describe future jobs

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 There is a growing need to match human resource
activities to an organizations strategic planning

Job specifications must accurately detail the knowledge and

skills that will complement future strategic initiatives

Job descriptions will no longer be snapshots of a static job

Strategic job analysis will have to capture

both the present and the future

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Compounding the problems of
reengineering, many companies
offer employees:
Compressed work schedules
Telecommuting
Job sharing
Flexible hours

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Competencies are general attributes
employees need across multiple jobs
or within the organization
Includes anything from teamwork to
leadership potential
Many organizations identify, communicate, and
reward competencies they believe employees
should have

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Competency
Competency modeling
modeling reflects
reflects an
an organizations
organizations desire
desire
to
to

Describe and Design and

Communicate job measure the implement staffing
requirements in organizations programs around
ways that extend workforce in competencies,
beyond the job general, rather than jobs,
itself competency- to increase
based terms staffing flexibility

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 Job descriptions and specifications can be
used for designing or redesigning jobs

There is no one best way to design a job

Different situations call for different arrangements

of job characteristics
Different emphasis may be placed on performance
and satisfaction as desired outcomes
A single approach is unlikely to satisfy
all a managers goals

The choice of job design involves trade-offs based on the

critical needs of the organization

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Perceptual-motor
Perceptual-motor Biological
Biological

Approaches to Work Design

Mechanistic
Mechanistic Motivational
Motivational

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 Job design was a central issue in F. W. Taylors
model of scientific management

The work of every workman is fully planned out by management

at least one day in advance

Each man receives complete written instructions

The instructions specify what is to be done, how it is to be done,

and the time allowed for doing it

The goal was to break jobs into simple, repetitive tasks

that could be done quickly and efficiently

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Recommendations Work should be studied scientifically
from scientific
management
It should be arranged so workers
can be efficient

Employees should be matched

to the demands of the job

They should be trained to

perform the job

Monetary compensation should be

tied directly to performance

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Managers like scientific management
because the goal is improving performance
Repetitive, highly specialized work can lead to
employee dissatisfaction
Efficiency gains may be offset by lower job
satisfaction, higher absenteeism, and turnover

Job enlargement tries to increase

satisfaction by giving employees a greater
variety of things to do
They are not additional authority or responsibility

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Job enrichment tries to design jobs in ways
that help incumbents satisfy their need for:
Growth
Recognition
Responsibility

The job is expanded vertically

Employees are given responsibility that might previously have
been part of a supervisors job

According to Herzberg, employees are

motivated by jobs that enhance their
feelings of self-worth
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Skill
Skill variety
variety Feedback
Feedback

A
A job
job must
must possess
possess
core
core dimensions
dimensions toto
lead
lead to
to desired
desired
outcomes
outcomes

Task
Task Autonomy
Autonomy
identity
identity
Task
Task
significance
significance

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6-61
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Work-family
Work-family tension
tension is
is Some
Some organizations
organizations
driven
driven by
by changing
changing meet
meet employees
employeesneeds
needs
workforce
workforce through
through flexible
flexible work
work
demographics
demographics arrangements
arrangements

1.
1. Women
Women and
and single
single 1.
1. Job
Job sharing
sharing
parents
parents entering
entering the
the 2.
2. Flextime
Flextime
workforce
workforce
2. 3.
3. Telecommuting
Telecommuting
2. Dual-career
Dual-career couples
couples
3.
3. The
The aging
aging population
population

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Benefits of family-
friendly arrangements:
Higher recruitment
and retention rates
Improved morale
Lower absenteeism
and tardiness
Higher employee
productivity

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The success of job sharing depends on:
Identifying jobs that can be shared
Understanding employees individual sharing style
Matching partners who have complementary
scheduling needs and skills

With flextime, employees can choose

when to be at the office
5 days/8 hours
4 days/10 hours
Arrive later on Monday, leave earlier on Friday

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Telecommuting allows
employees to work
at home part- or full-time
Communication is through
phone, fax, computer
Often resisted by managers who
fear loss of control and
subordinate accessibility

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Issues
Issuesto
toconsider
consider when
when developing
developingand
and
implementing
implementing flexible
flexiblework
workoptions
options

Open the program to all employees

Train/reward managers for encouraging

subordinates to use flextime

Be mindful of laws that impact flexible

work arrangement policies

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 In
Inthe
the1980s
1980sand
and1990s,
1990s,European
Europeanand
andAsian
Asian
firms
firmsembraced
embracedthe
thequality
qualitymanagement
management
movement
movement

U.S. firms are

Self-directed using self-directed Reengineering
teams have work teams and cannot succeed
become important reengineering unless attention is
in the success of work processes to paid to how
manufacturers regain a employees skills
worldwide competitive are affected
advantage

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1. Define the terms job analysis, job description, and job
specification.
2. Examine how job analysis is used to inform an
organization's HRM practices.
3. Compare four methods used to collect job analysis
information.
4. Analyze occupational data available from the
Occupational Information Network.
5. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the
mechanistic and motivational approaches to job design.
6. Describe why competencies are becoming more popular
with some organizations.

6-68
6-68