Chapter Three

CHAPTER-THREE
SUSPENSION
SYSTEM
Content
Introduction
The role of a vehicle suspension
Definitions & terminology
Suspension types
Suspension components
Kinematics Analysis
Roll center Analysis
Force Analysis
Introduction
What is an Automotive Suspension?
An Automotive Suspension is the system of parts that give a
vehicle the ability to maneuver.
It is a 3 Dimensional Four Bar Linkage
What does a suspension do?

A vehicle suspension maximize the road holding, provides
steering stability with good handling and ensures the comfort of
the passengers
Suspension = a system of springs + dampers + linkages

The Roll of Suspension
To provide Ride & Handling Performance-
Ride - vehicle's ability to smooth out a bumpy road
Handling - vehicle's ability to safely accelerate, brake
and corner. (min roll and pitch acceleration)
This requires the suspension to have
Vertical compliance providing chassis isolation
Ensuring that the wheels
follow the road profile with very
little tyre load fluctuation.
To ensure that steering control is maintained during
manoeuvring- this requires
Maintain the wheels in the proper steer and camber attitudes
to the road surface
To support the vehicle static weight
To provide isolation from high vibration arising from tyre
excitation-
this requires appropriate isolation in the suspension joints to
prevent the transmission of road noise to the vehicle body
React the control force produced by the as a result of
Longitudinal braking & acceleration forces
Lateral (cornering) forces
Braking & acceleration torques
This requires the suspension geometry to be
designed to resist squat drive & roll of the vehicle
body
Suspension Elements
Suspension = a system of springs + dampers + linkages
All suspensions use

Springs
- to absorb impacts and
Dampers (or shock
absorbers)
- to control spring motions.
Suspension Elements
Spring Types
Leaf springs
Helical Coil springs
Torsional springs
Rubber springs
Air springs
use the compressive qualities of air to
absorb wheel vibrations.
consists of a cylindrical chamber of air
positioned between the wheel and the body.
Suspension Elements
Dampers
A shock absorber is basically
an oil pump placed between
the frame of the car and the
wheels.
It allows the dissipation of
energy stored in springs.
Factor affecting design
Suspension design like other form of vehicle design are affected by
Reduced development
Time dictated by market forces, this means that new vehicles, refined
suspensions need to be designed quickly with a min of rig & vehicles testing
prior to launch. (ADAMS)
Functional constrains
Suspensions are also required to meet certain performance targets which vary
across the range of vehicles.
The other limitations are

cost, weight, packing space, requirements for robustness & reliability, together
with manufacturing, assembly & maintenance constraints
Basic Suspension Terminology
Sprung Mass (Everything supported by the springs)
The vehicle masses that are supported by the vehicle
springs
Sprung weight moves indirectly with the road surface
Body, Engine, passengers, parts of drive train, and parts of
suspension.
Unsprung Mass (Everything between the springs and the road surface)
Mass of components that move when suspension is
displaced
Unsprung weight moves directly with the road surface
Wheels, tires, brakes, some suspension etc.
Sprung Mass
Body, Engine, passengers, parts of
drive train, and parts of suspension
Unsprung Mass
Wheels, tires, brakes, some suspension
Travel is another important parameter and defines the upper and lower
limits of the wheel motion. If a wheel bottoms, it can cause serious
control problems and cause damage.
Since the sprung mass is treated as a rigid body, it has 6
DOF comprising 3 translations & 3 rotations. Only 3 of
these are relevant for suspension studies,
Bounce
Roll
Pitch
Bump Travel
Vertical distance wheel is able to move up from static
position, with reference to vehicles sprung mass
Droop Travel
Vertical distance wheel is able to move down from static
position with reference to vehicles sprung mass
Roll
Front View angular rotation of the sprung vehicle
mass
Anti-Roll bar, (ARB) or Stabilizer bar, increases the suspension's roll stiffness.
Roll Center
Center at which the sprung mass pivots about
during a roll situation (lateral acceleration)
This is a dynamic point: moves around throughout
suspension travel
Pitch
Side View angular rotation of the sprung vehicle
mass
Pitch Center
Center at which the sprung mass pivots about
during a Pitch situation (fore/aft acceleration)
This is a dynamic point: moves around throughout
suspension travel
Wheel Orientation
Since one of the functions of a suspension system is to
maintain the position of the wheels constant relative to
the road throughout the motion of the suspension, it is
important to identify how the wheel position is defined.
Steering Axis
Steering Axis Inclination
Toe
Camber Angle
Caster Angle
Steering Axis (PSA) or King Pin Axis (KPA)
Axis about which the wheel/Tire rotate about during steering
inputs
When the wheels of a vehicle

are steered they pivot about an
axis that is defined by an Upper Ball Joint
imaginary line drawn through

the wheel pivots (ball joint or
king pin).
Lower Ball Joint
Caster Angle
The inclination of the steering axis, relative to a vertical
line from the road surface, as viewed from the side of the
vehicle.
Positive caster results in a caster offset in front of the contact
patch center.
Caster Trail
The linear dimension,
at the road surface,
between the PSA
and the center of the
tire contact patch, as
viewed from the side
Caster Angle
Caster adds to straight line stability, steering return-ability and
affects the wheel camber as the wheels are steered
Caster angle varies between 3 to 6o.
For easier steering, a small caster angle is required.
Cross Caster (unequal left and right caster) leads to steering
wander
Camber
The inclination of the rotational plane of the tire, relative to
a vertical line from the road surface, as viewed from the
front of the vehicle.
Positive camber- The top of the tire rotational plane is
outside of the normal to the road surface, negative inside
Camber
Camber is a tire wearing angle.
Camber angle in modern cars is reduced to below 1o.
However, a negative front wheel camber is used in some
sports car to improve cornering ability.
Camber moves the center of the tire

contact patch closer to the PSA
(front view) thereby reducing the road
inputs to the steering.
Camber
Positive Camber Negative Camber
Steering Axis Inclination (SAI or KPI)
Its function is the same as that of the camber
Axis inclination causes the front end of the vehicle to rise as the
wheel is turned. Therefore a self-aligning torque is produced
resulting in better directional stability.
It produces positive camber at the outside wheel during cornering,
thus increasing understeer
characteristics.
It is usually 3 to 7 degrees for

passenger cars. For trucks, it is
zero.
Scrub Radius
The linear dimension between
the PSA and the center of the
tire contact patch (front view)
is called the scrub radius.
The scrub radius can be
positive (PSA inside),
zero, or
Negative (PSA outside Tire
Contact Patch
Toe
Top view angle of the tire in a static situation
Static Toe Angle [deg] - The angle measured between the
centerline of the vehicle and the rotational plane of the
tire as viewed from the top.
Important for both front and rear tires
Toe
The linear dimension difference between the front and
rear measurements taken at the forward most point in the
tire rotation planes.
Toe-out is usually produced during straight-ahead driving
due to the elsticity of the steering linkage, worn parts, etc.
and during cornering.
Toe In (Positive Toe) Toe-Out (Negative Toe)

Toe
Toe-out cause tire wear.
Toe-in is given to the wheels cancel these effects. It also
provides a lateral force to resist side loads.
Too much toe-in results in excessive tire wear.
Feathering (scuffing)
Types of Suspension
Factors which primary affect the choice of suspension type at
the front or rear of a vehicle are
Engine Location
Whether the wheels are
Driven or un driven and
Steered or un steered
Suspensions can be broadly classified as

Active Suspension
Conventional suspension
Types of Suspension
Semi-active suspensions
include devices such as
Air-springs
Switchable shock absorbers,
Hydropneumatic suspensions.
Active Suspension
currently sell shock absorbers filled with a
magnetorheological fluid, whose viscosity can be changed
electromagnetically, thereby giving variable control without
switching valves. (Bose suspension )
Types of Suspension
Conventional Suspension System
Dependent Suspension
The motion of a wheel on one side of the vehicle is
dependant on the motion of partner on the other side
Independent Suspension
The motion of wheel pairs is independent, so that a
disturbance at one wheel is not directly transmitted to its
partner
Types of Suspension
Types of Suspension
Dependent (Driving and Non-driving)
Dead Solid Beam Axle
Twist Beam
Live Solid Beam Axle
Hotchkiss with semi-elliptic leaf spring
Independent (Driving and Non-driving)
MacPherson Strut
Double Wishbone (short-long arm SLA)
Multi Link
Types of Suspension
These are not common on the passenger cars
They are still used on commercial & off-high way
vehicles.
Have the advantages of
being relatively simple in contraction &
almost completely eliminate camber change thereby
reducing tyre wear
Types of Suspension
Note: Solid link between left and right wheels

Types of Suspension
Independent System
This form of suspension has benefits
in packaging &
give grater design freedom when compared to dependent
system
Some of the common forms of front & rear designs will
be considered.
Types of Suspension
Independent System
Note: left and right wheels are

decoupled
Types of Suspension
Front Suspension System
Common Suspension
MacPherson strut
Double wishbone
Designs
Beam coil springs
Beam Axle
Beam leaf springs
Swing Axle
Rear Suspension System
De Dion
Twist beam American type/ European type
Double Wishbone /Unequal
Length A-arm
Beam coil springs
Beam leaf springs
MacPherson strut
Double wishbone
Multi link
Others DeDion, Watts link, sliding pillar, transverse leaf
Types of Suspension-Front
Rigid (Beam) axle suspension
Beam leaf springs
Used on heavy duty and light trucks
Beam axle is located by leaf springs.
- Same as for coil springs, but added
friction in leaves further degrades
comfort.
- Increased sprung weight, poor wheel
control
+ Same as for coil springs, but cheaper
due to fewer parts since springs act as
control arms.
+ Simple and durable, low cost
Live axle can be used for 4WD
Rigid (Beam) Axle Suspension
Beam Coil Springs
Used on Jeep Grand Cherokee,
If coil springs are used instead of leaf
springs, trailing arms are used to locate it
laterally.
High unsprung mass = poor ride comfort.
Low tech image but rugged and durable.
+ Good load carrying capability.
+ Cheaper than alternatives for carrying
heavy loads because suspension and
substructure are integrated.
+ No Camber related tire wear issues
Torsion Bars
Used in place of coil springs, usually 4WD trucks
Bar twists, resisting movement of lower control arm
MacPherson Strut
One of the most popular systems
One Control Arm
Ideal for front wheel drive
Light weight
Economical
Good ride quality and handling
characteristics
Used for both front and rear suspensions
Camber curve not as flexible as wishbone.
Friction in strut can be troublesome.

MacPherson Strut
It is mechanically simple, requires very little lateral space, its
unsprung mass is small. In addition, its up-and-down motion causes
very little camber change.
It requires considerable vertical space. Lateral loads in the strut
increases damper friciton.
Advantages Disadvantages
Low production costs Large camber variation
Stamped construction
Body roll and wheel movement
contribute to camber attitude
Preassembled
Vertically tall mounting position
Strut body carries spring This compromises vehicle styling
assembly
Rough ride
Compact Some ride comfort may be lost,
Simple mounting and no need as it is hard to move smoothly
for an upper control arm because of bending input force
Simplicity Dangerous replacement
Reduction in fasteners and The spring must be compressed
alignment of vehicle and assembled on the strut
suspension components. body, this causes the handling of
a charged spring.
Short and Long Arm (SLA)
(Double Wishbone)
Uses an upper and a lower
control arm
Uses either torsion bars or coil
springs
Good ride quality and handling
characteristics
Heavy and complex design
requires a lot of space
Also used on many passenger
vehicles and light trucks
Double Wishbone
Each arm of the wishbone

is a separate item
double A-arms lower A-arm is a single solid arm

Double Wishbone
Parallel and equal wishbones,
the camber change is equal to the body roll change. The wheel moves
over bumps without any camber change but
track will change affecting linear stability by introducing lateral forces.
Shortening the upper wishbone
to obtain constant track and
to reduce camber change due to body roll during cornering.
However, this time a camber change is introduced during up-and down
motion.
Nonparallel and unequal wishbone
the outside wheel virtually upright irrespective of the body roll and
a
relatively constant track can be maintained.
The camber, castor, roll center, etc. can all be
individually adjusted on this type of suspension relatively
easily
Advantages
Arguably the best handling suspension design
Wheel gains negative camber in bump
Low Unsprung Weight
Packaging does not compromise styling
Low Height
Many different geometry characteristics possible
Designer can design suspension with minimal compromises
Infinite adjustability, with the most ease
Vehicles roll centers can be placed almost anywhere
Disadvantages
More expensive
More components to make and assemble
Alignment and fitment are critical to vehicle performance, large area of
adjustment
Tolerance of parts must be smaller
Requires constant alignment checks for optimum performance
More complex
Design often becomes more complex because all suspension parameters
are variable
Frame has to be able to pick up A-arm inboard points
Tire scrub occurs with vertical wheel displacement
However this can be minimized during design
Double Wishbone
MacPherson Strut
Types of Suspension-Rear
Solid Beam Axle with Leaf Springs also known a Hotchkiss
Default rear suspension for light
trucks.
+ Carries heavy load with low cost
and technology.
- As for beam leaf front
suspensions.
Mounting one rear shock in the front of

the axle and one behind the axle helps
to reduce wind up and axle tramp
Beam coil springs
+ Good combination of load

carrying, relative comfort and
low cost
-As for beam coil front
suspensions
The upper control arms control lateral
movement (side movement)
The lower control arms control
differential torque (wind up)
Twist Beam
Primarily used on American
designed minivans
Twisting element is placed
between wheels
- Twisting element far from
kinematic torsion center.
+ Inexpensive design.
+ Can offer better lateral control of
axle than European style.
+ Packages well to provide
maximum cargo space
Twist Beam Dependent Non-Driving
Trailing Arm
Independent Design
Uses individual lower control
arms
Uses coil springs and shocks
Good ride quality
Compared with the rigid
beam axle, the unsprung
mass is much lower.
MacPherson Strut Independent Non-Drive
Also called Chapman strut, after Colin Chapman,
founder of Lotus Cars.
Can be live (drive) or dead (non-drive) axle.
In the 80s and 90s, was be considered default
IRS for sedans. Used by Ford Taurus, Ford
Escort, Dodge/Chrysler sedans, etc.
+ Advantages as per MacPherson, front.
+ Good packaging width-wise, struts are far
apart laterally.
- Vertical packaging is not good (too tall) for
trunk.
- Handling performance not as good as multi-
link or wishbone types.
Fords
MacPherson Strut
Toyota
Double wishbone (SLA)
Comments same as for
double wishbone front.
+ Main advantage is control
of wheel position and
stiffness.
- Main disadvantage is the
number of pieces and the
complex loading of them.
- Alignment important for
vehicle handling
Multi-Link Independent Drive Axle
Multi-link
Gaining popularity due to simplicity of components and
performance advantages.
+ Simple components, mostly two-force members.
+ Good wheel position control like double wishbone.
+ Compliances can be decoupled (longitudinal and lateral).
- More components than other suspension types.
- Assembly tolerances can be greater than other suspensions
due to number of components.
Types of Suspension-Others
De Dion
Semi-independent rigid (beam) axle suspension
Jointed axles are used, on drive wheels,
The wheels are connected with a solid member, most
often a DeDion axle.
This differs from "dependent" mainly in unsprung weight.
Types of Suspension-Others
Swing Axle
Used in small commercial vehicles.
Wheel travel results in considerable
camber change,
track variation.
Body roll is also excessive.
Jacking effects can result in erratic
cornering performance.
Suspension Systems - Active
Hydropneumatic springs
the spring is produced by a constant mass of gas
(typically nitrogen) in a variable volume enclosure.
The principle of operation of a basic diaphragm
accumulator spring
As the wheel deflects in bump, the piston moves
upwards transmitting the motion to the fluid and
compressing the gas via the flexible diaphragm.
The gas pressure increases as its volume
decreases to produce a hardening spring
characteristic.
Hydropneumatic springs
The front and rear
suspension units are
interconnected.
If front wheel is deflected,
interconnecting pipe is
pressurized, thus stiffening
the rear wheel suspension.
This creates a very smooth
ride.
Bose Suspension
A linear electromagnetic motor is used
with conventional shock absorbers,
springs and struts.
Sensors at various locations to detect
body and suspension movement.
Produces excellent ride quality and
superior control in the same system
LEM can extend and compress at a
much greater speed, virtually eliminating
all vibrations in the passanger cabin.
Bose Suspension
Linear Electromagnetic Motor
Responds quickly enough to counter the effects of bumps and road
irregularities
Power Amplifier
Sends power to the motor during extension and returns power during
retraction
Control Algorithms
Observe sensor measurements and send commands to the power amplifiers
Bose Suspension
Uses sensor measurements to
instantaneously counteract
road forces
Produces excellent ride quality
and superior control in the
same system
Magneto-Rheological Technology
Dampers contain magnetic particles
suspended in fluid
Magnetic field within the fluid aligns
particles Creates resistance to movement
and increases damping
Variable magnetic field creates more or
less resistance as needed
System can change up to 1000 times per
second
Benefits
Bose Suspension Magnetic Ride Control
Superior comfort Improved road handling
Superior control Improved wheel control
Reduces body roll during turns Smoother ride than conventional
Reduces need for camber roll shocks and struts
during turns Reduces noise and virbations
Wider damping range than Continuous range of damping
Magneto-Rheological systems
Disadvantages
High initial cost
High repair costs
Complex systems
Applications
Magnetic Ride Control
Bose Suspension Currently offered on Cadillac SRX
System will be offered on and Seville STS models.
high end luxury vehicles Offered on the Chevrolet Corvette
within the next 5 years. for the 2003 model year.
The same technology has Mercedes S600
been applied in Military BMW 7 series
applications.
Suspension Systems - Other
Watts Linkage
DeDion
Swing Arm
Semi-Trailing Arm
Suspension Components
Knuckle
Control arm
Subframe
Stabilizer system
Springs, shocks and struts
Bearings and braking components
Bushings and ball joints
Knuckle
Function of the knuckle is to attach rotating
components to suspension components; distribute
load from road to body.
Vertical, lateral, longitudinal and torque loads are
carried by the knuckle.
Also known as wheel carrier, hub carrier, spindle
or upright.
Knuckle
Mulit-link
MacPherson
SLA
Control Arm
Function of the control arm is to attach the
knuckle to the chassis, react wheel loads, and to
guide the knuckle providing for correct
suspension geometry
eg. Camber , Caster, Toe, SAI
The lower control arm carries a

large portion of the lateral and
longitudinal loading from the wheel.
Control Arms Various types
Sub-Frame
Function of subframe is to attach suspension, steering
and powertrain components to vehicle body.
Subframe carries a large portion of lateral and longitudinal
loads.
Because it is a large flexible structure, design consideration
for NVH performance is particularly important. Typically it is
mounted to the chassis through rubber isolators. This helps
isolate road noise and vibration transmission from the wheels
to the chassis.
Sub-Frame Various Types
Anti-Roll Stabilizer Bar
Function of stabilizer system is to reduce the
vehicle roll angle when cornering, and also to
produce the desired level of roll understeer.
Stabilizer drop links attach to knuckle or strut,
stabilizer bar is a torsion spring which attaches to
the subframe. Vertical loading is present at the
stabilizer bar bushings to the subframe.
Anti-Roll Stabilizer Bar

Springs, shocks and struts
Function of spring is to support vehicle weight.
Function of shock absorber (damper) is to
absorb energy from road and to reduce
sprung mass vibrations.
Function of strut is to carry lateral and vertical
loading.
Strut Rod
Connected to frame & lower control arm
Controls fore & aft movement of control arm
May provide for caster adjustment
Bushings and ball joints
Function of bushings is to absorb road bumps and
high frequency vibrations; also to provide precise
positioning of suspension components for safe
handling. These functions are provided while also
allowing articulation.
Function of ball joints is to allow articulation, but
with very high stiffness, such as when part of the
steering mechanism or when high precision
handling is required (sports cars).
Bushing
Ball Joint
Bearings and braking components
Function of bearings and hub units is to allow
rotation between wheel/tire and vehicle.
Hub/bearing carries all forces and moments and
distributes them to the knuckle.
Function of braking components is to decelerate the
vehicle, in addition they play a dominant role as the
main actuator in ABS, traction control and stability
control systems.
Disc Brake
Drum Brake
Mobility of Suspension (D.O.F)
Mobility analysis is useful for checking for the
appropriate number of degrees of freedom,
it does not help in developing the geometry of a
mechanism to provides the desired motion.
For suspension mechanisms this process is called
position synthesis and requires the use of specialized
& analytical techniques aided by computer software
Suspension system are in general 3-dimensional mechanisms &
as such are difficult to analysis fully without the aid of computer
packages.
A fundamental requirement of a suspension mechanism is the
need to guide the motion of each wheel along a (unique) vertical
path relative to the vehicle body without significant change in
camber.
This requirement has addressed by employing various single
degree of freedom (SDOF) mechanism which have straight line
motion throughout the deflection of the suspension
A basic understanding of their kinematics can be derived from a 2-D
analysis
Fundamental to this analysis is an understanding of how the
number of degrees of freedom (mobility in mechanisms parlance) of
a mechanism are related to the number of links & the types of
kinematics constraint imposed on them.
M=0, structure i.e. not designed for motion,
M=1 completely constrained motion (required one inputs)
M=2 Incompletely constrained motion requires two prescribed
inputs to position them uniquely. This not desirable for suspensions
According to Kutzbach criterion
M=3(n-1)-2Jl-Jh
Where- M mobility
n- Number of links
Jl- Number of lower pairs
Jh Number of Higher pairs
Example- For Double wishbone suspension, there are 4-links
forming 4-bar chain
N=4, Jl=4, Jh=0
M=3(4-1)-2(4)=1, i.e a SDOF mechanism
Exercises
Determine the Mobility of MacPherson Strut
Kinematic Analysis
One of the 1st stage of suspension design (once the type of suspension gas
been selected) is to size the mechanism and ensure it is capable of fitting in to
the packaging envelope.
As part of this process it is necessary to check the geometry variations of the
suspension over its operating range & ratios of spring & damper travel
relative to wheel travel.
Comprehensive analysis of suspension motions requires the inclusion of joints
compliances, the problems become one of the force-motion analysis . This
requires the use of specialized computational software (ex, ADAMS) and
associated modeling skills
If the joint compliances are neglected, the problem is simplified in to a purely
kinematic one and if further, the problem can be assumed to be 2-
Diamensional
Kinematic Analysis
The basic analysis can be carried out using
Graphical Method
Computational Method (using Math CAD 2000)
In Graphical Analysis of Suspension Motion
It should be recognized that relationship between the relative motion of
parts of the mechanism can be determined from seats of velocity
diagram
To cover the full range of suspension travel it is necessary to draw a
number of diagrams corresponding to different position of the
mechanism
This has the advantages of providing a good feel for what is happing,
but the downside is the lack of accuracy & the tedium of drawing many
diagrams
Kinematic Analysis
In computational approach
Significant effort required to formulate the problem, but
once this has been done mathematically software can be
used to solve equations & present the results numerically
or graphically
The significant benefits of this approach are improved
accuracy and the ability to try out what if scenarios
Kinematic Analysis-Graphical Analysis
Consider the MacPherson strut
Aim- is to determine
A) The suspension ratio (R) (The rate of change of Vertical
movement at D as a function of spring compression)
B) The bump to scrub to rate the given position of the
mechanism
Drawing the suspension mechanism to scale &
assume the chassis is fixed
Let AB have an arbitrary angular velocity BA =1 rad/sec (cw) direction
The velocity of B has a magnitude
VB =rBA(BA)=3311= 331 mm/s perpendicular to link AB
VB/C = VrB/C +VtB/C
VrB/C is parallel to BC (change length of link BC)
VtB/C is Perpendicular to BC ( tangential component arising from the
rotation of link BC about C)
From measurement VrB/C =311 mm/s
VtB/C=113.2 mm/s
VrB/C =311 mm/s
VtB/C=113.2 mm/s
VtB
VB
VB
VrB
Ov a, c
VB =rBA(BA)=3311= 331 mm/s
Since DB can be considered to be a rigid extension of link BC,
The velocity of D relative to B (VD/B) consist only the tangential
component (VtB/A) (Perpendicular to link BC)
The magnitude of VtB/A can be determined by proportioning
VtD/B=B/C (BD)
VtB/C=B/C (BC)
VDt / B bd D / B BD bd BD
/ /
VB / C bb B / C BC
t
bb BC
bd
bb BD
/
bd
173
113.2 34.5 mm / s
BC 567
VD/B
VD/B
VtB
VB
VB
VD
VrB
VD Vertical
VD Horizontal
Ov a, c
VD (vertical) =311 mm/s V D (Horizontal) =147.6 mm/s
Then
A) The suspension ratio (R)
dV Vertical Velocity of tire V D Vertical

R
du Vertical Velocity of Spring V B Vertical

dd ' 311
1.16
OV b' 267
B) Scrub to Bump ratio
VD Horizontal OV d ' 147.6

0.47
VDVertical dd ' 311

Roll Centre Analysis
Roll centre & Roll axis concepts are
important aids in studying vehicle handling
Enabling simplifications to be made in load transfer calculations for
cornering operations
Definitions of Roll Centre
Based on Forces (SAE Definition)
A point in the transverse plane through any pair of wheels at which a
transverse force may be applied to the sprung mass without causing it
to roll
Based on Kinematics
Is the point about which the body can roll without any lateral movement
at either of the wheel contact areas.
Roll center
Represents the instantaneous
point about which the sprung
mass will rotate due to
cornering forces
Roll center moves as
suspension travels
Goal of any suspension
designer is to minimize Roll
Center Migration
In general each roll centre lies on the line produced by the
intersection of the Longitudinal Centre Plane of the vehicle
and the vertical transverse plane through a pair of wheel
centers.
The roll centre heights at the front & the rear wheel planes
tends to be different as shown in fig
The line joining the centers is called the Roll Axis, with
implication that a transverse force applied to the sprung mass
at any point on this axis will not cause body roll
As roll of the sprung mass takes place, the suspension
geometry changes, symmetry of the suspension across
the vehicle is lost and the definition of roll centre
becomes invalid.
Therefore the limitations of roll centre analysis are
It relates to the non-rolled vehicle condition & can therefore
only be used for approximations involving small angles of roll
It assumes no change in vehicle track as a result of small
angles of roll
For a given front or rear suspension the roll centre can
be determined from the Kinematic definition by using the
Aronhold-Kennedy theorem of 3 centers which states
When 3 bodies move relative to one another they
have 3 instantaneous centers all of which lie on the
same straight line
Solid Axle Roll Centers
The roll center can be determined from the layouts of
suspension geometry in front and top views
Virtual reaction point
The intersection of the axes of any pair of suspension
control arms
Mechanically, it is the point where the compression/tension
forces in the control arms can be resolved in to a single
lateral force
4-link Rear Suspension
The lateral forces acting on the wheel in the top view react
as tension and compression forces in the control arms
The 2 long arms establish a virtual reaction point ahead of
the axle at B
The two short arms have a virtual reaction point behind the
axle at A.
A General procedure for finding roll center
In a Top view of suspension find the
linkages that takes the side forces acting
on the suspension. Determine the
reaction points A & B on the centerline of
the vehicle for forces in the link
Locating the points A & B in the front view,
there by identifying the suspension roll
axis
The roll center is the point in the side
where the roll axis crosses the vertical
centerline of the wheels
In the 4- link geometry, the change in slop of the roll
axis during cornering is often relatively large
compared to other live axles.
This means considerable change in roll steer and
lateral load transfer, which are undesirable effects.
The roll center is located relatively high compared to
other hand, the high roll center helps to reduce the
tramp and shake of the axle
3- Links Rear suspension
It consisting of a track bar and 2-lower control arms
BeCoz the track bar picks up lateral force directly,
Point A is established at the location where the track bar
crosses the centerline of the vehicle
Point B is established as the virtual reaction point for the 2 lower
control arms.
The upper link which reacts the axle windup torque does not
react lateral forces and is therefore ignored in the analysis
Due to the location of the track bar, this suspension
usually has a roll center that is lower than the four- link
geometry
The slope of the roll axis remains
relatively unchanged during rolling of
the body and with load variations
Hotchkiss Suspension
The design of this suspension is quite different from those
discussed previously, but the general rules for determining
the roll axis and center still apply
BeCoz they are parallel to the centerline of the vehicle in the
top view the point A & B lie on the centerline of the car, both
are infinity
Independent Suspension
The procedure for symmetrical independent suspension
Find the virtual reaction point of the suspension link (point-A)
Draw a line from the tire-ground contact patch to the virtual
reaction point
The point where this line crosses the centerline of the body is the
roll center
Example- Double Wishbone Suspension
Consider the 3 bodies capable of relative motion as

The sprung mass
The leaf hand wheels
The Ground
IWb- The instantaneous centre of the wheel relative to the
sprung mass
lWb- lies at the intersection of the upper & lower wishbones
IWg- The I.C of the wheel relative to the ground
Ibg The I.C of the sprung mass relative to the ground
(roll centre)
Ibg must lie in the centre plane of the vehicle & on the
line joining IWb & IWg
For double wishbone suspension IWb can be varying by
angling the upper & lower wishbones to different
positions, thereby altering the load transfer between
inner & outer wheels in a cornering maneuver
This gives the suspension designer some control over
the handling capabilities of the vehicle
Positive Sawing Arm Geometry Negative Sawing Arm Geometry
The roll center is above the Ground The roll center is below the Ground
Parallel Horizontal links
Suspension with parallel links that are horizontal (at
design load).
The virtual point of the two links is therefore at infinity
Drawing a line from the tire contact patch towards infinity
places the roll center in the ground plane.
As the vehicle rolls in cornering
The virtual reaction point of the outside wheel moves downward due
to jounce of the wheel
The inside wheel moves upward as it goes in to rebound
With the loss of symmetry the roll centers for the wheels no longer
coincide
The large lateral force from the outside wheel moves downward on
the body
The weaker force from the inside wheel moves upward.
As consequence, the resultant lateral force reaction on the body
moves downward, lowering the effective roll center height
McPherson Strut
The McPherson strut is a combination of a strut with a
lower
The virtual reaction point must lie at the intersection of the
axis of the lower control arm and a line perpendicular to the
strut
The roll center is located on the centerline of the

Vehicle at the intersection with the line from the
center of tire Contact to the virtual reaction point
Swing Axle
The virtual reaction point is the actual pivot of the axle
The roll center is the point where the line from the tire
contact passes through the pivot and the roll center is
located above the wheel center on the vehicle
centerline

Force Analysis
The simple force analysis in suspension mechanisms
resulting from
Vertical loading
Lateral loading
Longitudinal Loading
The relationship between the vertical Wheel loading
and the spring forces is also discussed leading to the
selection of suspension spring characteristics.
Relationship between spring and wheel rates
In General the relationship between spring deflections and
wheel displacements in suspensions is non-Linear,
A desired wheel rate (related to suspension natural frequency)
has to be interpreted in to spring-rate.
Consider the double wishbone suspension
W- Wheel forces
v- Wheel deflection
S- Spring forces
u- Spring deflection
Suspension Ratio= S
R
W
Spring Stiffness=Ks
dS d RW dW dv dR dv
Ks R W
du du dv du
dv du
Using the principle of virtual work,

S du W dv
The suspension ratio eq can be written
S dv
R
W du dW
Kw
The wheel rate defined as dv
Spring Stiffness=Ks
dS d RW The suspension ratio
Ks
du du S dv
R
dW dv dR dv W du
R W
dv du dv du The wheel rate
dR
K s R ( K w ) R WR Kw
dW
dV dv
dR
Kw R S2
dv
Force Analysis
Wheel-Rate for constant natural frequency with variable
payload
The simplest model for ride is that of a SDOF system in
which the spring stiffness (Ks) is that associated with wheel
rate (Kw) & mass (ms) is proportion of the total sprung mass
The undamped natural frequency is then Kw
n
If Kw is constant , the natural frequency decreases
m sas the
payload increases
Force Analysis
It is possible to determine a variable wheel-rate which will
ensure that the natural frequency remains constant as the
sprung mass increases
Denoting the static displacement as ms g
s
Kw
ms g
Kw s g
Then n can be written in terms of s n
ms ms s
From this it is seen that to maintain n constant s must be
constant and hence load/rate must be constant, i.e.
W
Cons tan t or dW dv
dW s
W s
dv
Force Analysis
dW dv
dW dv
W s
Integrating both sides
W s
v v
ln W c log e
W
c
s s
Were C is constant
To determine constant (C) Assume at nominal static condition the
wheel load & the suspension deflection is W=Ws & V=Vs
vs
C ln Ws
s
Force Analysis
then ln W v vs
ln Ws This equation defines the reqired
s s
Load-Deflection relationship for
v vs tyre load as a function of tyre
ln W ln Ws deflection V.
s
W v vs The corresponding wheel rate
ln
Ws s
can be found by differentiating W
w.r.t V, giving
v vs

W s
e
v vs
Ws dW W s

Kw e s
v vs

dv s
s
W Ws e
Force Analysis
The graphs shows the Wheel load &
wheel rate as a function wheel
displacement for a natural frequency of
1.125 Hz.
If the suspension ratio R & its derivative
(dR/dv) are known as a function of
wheel deflection, then the spring rate
can be calculated
Forces in Suspension Members
Comprehensive force analysis requires computer packages,
But some simple analysis estimates of loading of suspension members
and chassis connection points can be carried out using Graphical
methods.
In performing this analysis it is assumed that
The mass of the members is neglected
The spring or wheel rate needs to be known.
Some of the basic principles of mechanics are employed in the analysis
Using FBD
for determining internal forces in structures &
condition of equilibrium of pin-jointed two- & three force member
F F F M M M

x 0 y 0 z 0 x 0 y 0 z 0
In the case of 3 force members equilibrium requires the 3

forces to pass through a common point i.e. concurrent, and the
vector sum of the forces must be zero
If one of the 3 forces is known the magnitudes of the other two
can be found (graphically this involves drawing a triangle of
forces)
1. Vertical Loadings
Example- Consider the double Wishbone suspension
Assume FW the wheel load
Fs the force exerted by the spring on the suspension mechanism
Link AB & CD are respectively two-

force member
When the FBD of the wheel & knuckle is considered
The directions of FW & FB are known & together establish the
point of concurrency at P1, for the 3 forces which act on the
body
If the magnitude of FW is known,
the magnitudes of FB & Fc can be
determined from the triangle of force
From the FBD of link CD
the point of concurrency is at P2 and with
Fc known
FD and Fs can be found from the second
triangle of forces.
The corresponding chassis loadings
comprise FA (= FB), Fs and FD.
An analysis over the full suspension travel
requires the graphical procedure to be
repeated at suitable increments of
suspension displacement
In order to define the applied loading at a given suspension position,
it is necessary to know either the wheel or spring rate.
A similar analysis can be carried out for the MacPherson strut
AB is a two force member
the point of concurrency of the forces Fw & FB is at P
This means that the force FC exerted on the strut at C acts through P
In analyzing the forces exerted on the upper sliding part of
the strut it is seen that the inclined force at C must be
counteracted by a collinear spring force otherwise side forces
and a bending moment act on the member.
The solution is to set
the axis of the spring coaxial with CP This has the effect of
reducing wear in the strut, but clearly bending effects are not
completely eliminated for all suspension positions.
2. Lateral & Longitudinal Loadings
Lateral loading arises from cornering effects
while longitudinal loadings arise from braking
3. Shock Loading
due to the wheels striking bumps and pot-holes.
Dynamic loading effects are very difficult to quantify, but
experience has enabled a range of dynamic load factors to
be established.
Anti-Squat/Anti-Drive Geometries
During braking and acceleration
there is a load transfer between front and rear wheels and
The attitude of the sprung mass tends to change
When viewed from the side
During braking
There is a tendency for the sprung mass to dive (nose down)
During acceleration
the reverse occurs, with the nose lifting and the rear end
squatting
Since the load transfers occur through the suspension, it is
possible to design the suspension mechanism to
counteract this behavior.
The same general principles apply to squat and dive
analysis
It requires an understanding of the forces acting on
various drive shaft and braking combination.
D' Alembert's principle can be used to convert the
dynamics problem into a statics one, thereby simplifying
the solution.
Determination of Anti-Drive Geometry
Consider the FBD of the vehicle during braking
D' Alembert force (sometimes called the inertia force) ma,
tends to oppose the deceleration.
Assume that there is a fixed braking ratio k, between front and
rear braking forces:
Bf
K
B f Br
Take moments about the rear tyre

contact point giving
N f L mah mgc 0
mgc mah
Re arranging gives N f
L L
The corresponding vertical force at the rear is
mgb mah
Nr
L L
The overall effect is an increase in load at the front and

a decrease at the rear producing a tendency for dive
Consider now the front suspension with inclined links such
that the wheel effectively pivots about Of in the side view
The suspension spring force Sf, may be expressed as the
static load Sf plus a perturbation dSf, due to braking
S f S t S f
mgc Under static condition a=0

Where S f
L
Taking moment about Of N f e S f e Bf f 0
mgb mah mgc

e e B f f 0
L L L
mahe
Bf f 0
L
B f maK
mahe
then mak f 0
L
he f h
Kf tan
L e KL
If Of lies anywhere on the line defined by the above equation the

condition for zero deflection at the front suspension is satisfied.
If Of lies below this line, i.e. on a line inclined at an angle ' to the
horizontal, then the percentage anti-dive is defined as:
tan '
100
tan
A similar analysis for a rear suspension having the geometry
shown in Figure
f h
tan
e L(1 K )
If Or lies on the line defined by the above equation there is no

tendency for the rear of the sprung mass to lift during braking.
For 100% Anti-dive
the effective pivot points for front and rear suspensions must lie
on the locus defined by the above 2 equations (as shown in
Fig).
If the pivots lie below the locus less than 100% anti-dive will be
obtained.
In practice anti-dive rarely exceeds 50% for the following
reasons:
Subjectively zero pitch braking is undesirable;
There needs to be a compromise between full anti-dive and
anti-squat conditions
Full anti-dive can cause large castor angle changes (because all
the braking torque is reacted through the suspension links)
resulting in heavy steering during braking.
Determination of Anti-Pitch Geometry
The analysis for anti-squat suspensions is similar to that for
anti-dive, except now the direction of the D' Alembert force
is reversed.
Furthermore the braking forces are replaced by tractive
forces (opposite in direction) which may be applied to either
front or rear wheels
It should be noted that anti-pitch geometry can only be
applied to the suspension at which the drive is applied.
Consider the case of a four-wheel drive vehicle with independent
suspension
the drive torque is reacted at the
power train, producing a drive torque
on the half-shafts and hence the
FBDs of the wheels
Assume the tractive effort is split in the

ratio T f

T f Tr
Taking moment about Of
Tf ft N f e f S f e f M f 0
Tf ft N f e f S f e f M f 0
where T f ma
mgc mah
Nf
L L
M f T f r mar
The change in front spring force
( ft r ) h
S f ma kf f
e f L
Kf is the front suspension stiffness

A similar analysis is used for the rear suspension
Taking moments about Or produces
Tr f r N r er S r er M r 0
Tr 1 ma
Where
mgb mah
Nr
L L
M r Tr r 1 mar
The change in rear spring force is

1 ( f r r h
S r ma kr r
er L
Kr is the rear suspension stiffness
The pitch angle is
r f

L
ma f f r h 1 f r r h

L ef k f Lk f er k r Lk r
Zero pitch occurs when = 0, i.e. when the term in square brackets is
zero.
This indicates that the anti-squat and anti-pitch performance depends
on the following vehicle properties -
suspension geometry, suspension stiffness (front and rear) and
tractive force distribution.
Lateral load transfer during cornering
During cornering, centrifugal (inertia) forces act
horizontally on the sprung and unsprung masses.
These forces act above the ground plane through the
respective mass centres causing moments to be
generated on the respective masses.
These in turn lead to changes in vertical loads at the
tyres which affect vehicle handling and stability.
In general the vertical loads on the outer wheels
increase while those on the inner wheels decrease.
The process of converting the transverse forces into
vertical load changes is termed lateral load transfer.
G is the sprung mass
centre of gravity;
The transverse
acceleration at G due to
cornering is 'a';
The sprung mass rolls

through the angle about
the roll axis;
Notation and assumptions in the
analysis are:
The centrifugal (inertia) force on
the sprung mass msa acts
horizontally through G;
The gravity force on the sprung
mass msg acts vertically
downwards through G;
The inertia forces mufa and mura act
directly on the unsprung masses at
the front and rear axles. Each
transfers load only between its own
pair of wheels.
The analysis is split into four steps:
1. Load transfer due to the roll moment
Replace the two forces at G with the same forces at A
plus a moment (the roll moment) Ms
M s m s a d cos ms g d sin m s a d m s g
where is treated as a small angle.
Ms is reacted by a roll moment M (at the suspension springs
and anti-roll bars) and distributed to the front and rear suspensions.
The relationship between M and is assumed to be linear for small angles

of roll M K s
From the above two equations
m s ad
Ks- total roll stiffness
k s ms gd
M can be split into components Mf and Mr at the front
and rear axles such that
M = Mf + Mr = ksf + ksr
Ksf & Ksr- are the roll stiffness components of front and rear axle
Ks=Ksf+Ksr
The front & rear load transfer due to the roll moment is then
k sf k sf m s ad k sr k sr m s ad
F fsm Frsm
Tf T f k sf k sr ms gd Tr Tr k sf k sr m s gd
Tf & Tr are the front & rear track widths

Load transfer due to sprung mass inertia force

The sprung mass is distributed to the roll centers at
front and rear axles. The respective masses at front
and rear are:
m s bs ma
m sf and m sr s s
L L
The centrifugal force at A is distributed to the respective roll centers
at the front and rear axle as follows:
F fs m sf a and Frs m sr a
The corresponding load transfer are

m sf ah f msr ahr
F fsF
FrsF
Tf Tr
Load transfer due to the unsprung mass inertia

forces
The respective load transfers at the front and rear
axles due to the unsprung mass inertia forces are:
muf ahuf mur ahur

F fuF and FruF
Tf Tr
Determine the total load transfer
Combine the load transfers due to
roll moment
inertia forces on the sprung
unsprung masses
For the front wheel
Ff=FfsM+FfsF+FfuF
For rear wheels
Fr=FrsM+FrsF+FruF

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CHAPTER-THREE

What does a suspension do?

Suspension = a system of springs + dampers + linkages

All suspensions use

The other limitations are

When the wheels of a vehicle

imaginary line drawn through

Camber moves the center of the tire

It is usually 3 to 7 degrees for

Toe In (Positive Toe) Toe-Out (Negative Toe)

Suspensions can be broadly classified as

Note: Solid link between left and right wheels

Note: left and right wheels are

Friction in strut can be troublesome.

Each arm of the wishbone

double A-arms lower A-arm is a single solid arm

Mounting one rear shock in the front of

+ Good combination of load

The lower control arm carries a

Anti-Roll Stabilizer Bar

dV Vertical Velocity of tire V D Vertical

VD Horizontal OV d ' 147.6

Consider the 3 bodies capable of relative motion as

The roll center is located on the centerline of the

Using the principle of virtual work,

In the case of 3 force members equilibrium requires the 3

Link AB & CD are respectively two-

Take moments about the rear tyre

The overall effect is an increase in load at the front and

mgc Under static condition a=0

mgb mah mgc

If Of lies anywhere on the line defined by the above equation the

If Or lies on the line defined by the above equation there is no

Assume the tractive effort is split in the

The change in front spring force

Kf is the front suspension stiffness

The change in rear spring force is

The sprung mass rolls

The relationship between M and is assumed to be linear for small angles

Tf & Tr are the front & rear track widths

Load transfer due to sprung mass inertia force

The corresponding load transfer are

Load transfer due to the unsprung mass inertia

muf ahuf mur ahur

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