CLASSIFICATION

OF RESERVOIR
ROCK
Dr.Ir.Sudjati Rachmat,DEA

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Classification of reservoir rocks
• Sedimentary rocks:
Source rock: Broken down
sediments
old sedimentary
+ igneous Wind + water
+ organisms +
chemical action
Compaction/ Deltas, shore
face, valley fills
Cementation:
Sandstones

Sandstones: compacted quartz sands – fragments of rock crystals

Limestones: Skeletons of lime-secreting organisms, corals etc..
Diatomaceous shales: Diatoms and other microscopic plants
Gypsum/Anhydrides/Limestones: Chemical dissolution of rocks,
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followed by evaporation and crystallization
 Classification of rocks
• Igneous rocks- Volcanic origin- Some producing gas
fields. Gas found in vesicles formed in basalt due to gas
flows through molten lava. Igneous rocks generally
indicative of proximity to oil/gas reservoir.
• Metamorphic rocks – Both igneous and sedimentary rocks
that undergo further change due to heat.pressure and
chemicals:
Quartz Quartzite Quartz schist
clay shale slate schist
Generally unfavorable for oil and gas accumulations

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 Classification of Rocks
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
Rock-forming Source of
material

Rocks under high

Molten materials in Weathering and
temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust
process

Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids

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 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Breccia Conglomerate

Examples

Sandstone Shale
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 The Rock Cycle

Magma

Metamorphic Heat and Pressure Igneous

Rock Rock

n
a
Weathering,
Transportation
Sedimentary and Deposition
Rock Sediment

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 Sedimentary Rock Types
• Relative abundance
Sandstone
and conglomerate
~11%

Limestone and
dolomite
~13%
Siltstone, mud
and shale
~75%

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 Average Detrital Mineral
Composition of Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale (%) Sandstone (%)
Clay Minerals 60 5

Quartz 30 65

Feldspar 4 10-15

Rock Fragments <5 15

Carbonate 3 <1

Organic Matter, <3 <1

Hematite, and
Other Minerals (modified from Blatt, 1982)
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 The Four Major Components
• Framework
– Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
• Matrix
– Clay Size Detrital Material
• Cement
– Material precipitated post-depositionally, during burial.
Cements fill pores and replace framework grains
• Pores
– Voids between above components

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 Sandstone Composition
Framework Grains
KF = Potassium
Feldspar

PRF = Plutonic Rock

Fragment
PRF KF P = Pore
CEMENT Potassium Feldspar is
Stained Yellow With a
Chemical Dye
P
Pores are Impregnated
With Blue-Dyed Epoxy
Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Grains are About =< 0.25 mm in Diameter/Length
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 Sedimentary Rocks
• Conglomerates: Loose aggregate of rounded pebbles –
gravels
when cemented – conglomerates.
Porosity due to differential cementation
Oil fields in Pennsylvania, Texas, Oklahoma
• Sand, Sandstones: Finer sediments – yet noticeable, angular
Sands cemented by calcite – sandstones
silica – quartzite
Porosity due to voids and inter-grain spaces also differential
cementation
Pools in California, Alberta, Gulf Coast, Texas

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 Sedimentary Rocks
• Clays, shales: Fine grained particles – aluminous materials,
trapped water
Deep ocean sediments : Compaction yields shales
Porosity in cracks and fissures
Some pools in Santa Maria Basin, California, Gas in Kentucky

• Limestone: Principally CaCO3, hard and crystalline rock,

Marl, chalk, dolomites – other forms
Porosity due to weathering and solution – vugs
Many pools in mid-continent, Alberta, Middle east, Saudi Arabia
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 Sedimentary Rocks
• Cherts: Chemically pure silica – cryptocrystalline –
crystals visible only under magnification
• Occurrence as small nodules or large masses parallel to
bedding plane
• Porosity due to fractures
• Major pool – Offshore California, Monterey cherts

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 Porosity in Sandstone

Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Contain
Hydrocarbon Fluids

Pore Throats Restrict

Fluid Flow

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA

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Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Fibrous Authigenic Illite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Significant
Permeability
Reduction

Negligible
Porosity
Illite Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation

Migration of
Fines Problem
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
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Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Authigenic Chlorite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Iron-Rich
Varieties React
With Acid
Occurs in Several
Deeply Buried
Sandstones With
High Reservoir
Quality
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces

Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone

Offshore Alabama, USA 30~ 10 mm 16
(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Significant Permeability
Reduction

High Irreducible Water

Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
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Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
 Porosity
• Porosity depends on grain packing, not grain size
• Rocks with different grain sizes can have the same
percentage porosity

• Rhombohedral packing • Cubic packing

• Pore space = 26 % of total volume • Pore space = 47 % of total volume

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CUBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 0.48

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Porosity Calculations - Uniform
Spheres

• Bulk volume = (2r)3 = 8r3

4 r 3
• Matrix volume =
3
• Pore volume = bulk volume - matrix volume

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 Pore Volume
Porosity 
Bulk Volume
Bulk Volume  Matrix Volume

Bulk Volume
8 r3  4 / 3  r3 
 1  0.476
8r 3
2 3

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RHOMBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 0.27

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT POROSITY
PRIMARY
• Particle sphericity and angularity
• Packing
• Sorting (variable grain sizes)

SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
• Cementing materials
• Overburden stress (compaction)
• Vugs, dissolution, and fractures
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Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres
Porosity = 0.14

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 Permeability
• The rate of fluid flow through a reservoir depends on
– Pressure drop
– Fluid viscosity
– Permeability
• Permeability is a measure of the conductivity of a
reservoir rock to fluid flow
– Large grains may lead to high permeability and
large flow rates
– Small grains may lead to low permeability and
small flow rates
• Permeability and porosity may be related
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 Darcy’s Law
p2 L p1

q
A
Direction of flow

qm L L = length
k 
A ( p1  p 2) q = flow rate
p1, p2 = pressures
k = permeability A = area perpendicular to flow
(measured in darcies) m = viscosity
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 Fluid Saturation
• Fluid saturation is defined as the fraction of pore
volume occupied by a given fluid

saturation 
V specific fluid

• Definitions
V pore space

Sw = water saturation
So = oil saturation
Sg = gas saturation
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation
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= So + Sg 27
 Saturation
• Amount of water per unit volume = f Sw
• Amount of hydrocarbon per unit volume = f (1 - Sw)

f (1-Sw)
f Hydrocarbon
f Sw Water

1f Matrix

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Reservoir Rock Properties
• Porosity to retain fluid
• Permeability to allow the fluid to move
• Permeability is a dynamic property

unconnected
pore spaces

flow path

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 Reservoir Pressure
• Lithostatic pressure is caused by the pressure of
rock, transmitted by grain-to-grain contact.

• Fluid pressure is caused by weight of column of

fluids in the pore spaces. Average = 0.465 psi/ft
(saline water).

• Overburden pressure is the sum of the lithostatic

and fluid pressures.

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