Shallow Foundations, Retaining

Walls, & Pile/Pier Foundation

Flowcharts
Updated 3/10/2017
 Abbreviations
B = footing width/diameter
Shallow Foundations 𝐷𝑓 = Depth to bottom of footing
c = cohesion
General Considerations: ∅ = angle of internal friction
• Spread footings – rectangular, square, or other shape supporting one column 𝑃𝑔 = Surface surcharge
• Continuous footings – AKA wall footing or strip footing. 𝑁𝛾 = Base modifier
• Combined footings – Footing carrying more than one column. 𝑁𝑐 = cohesion modifier
• Cantilever footings – combined footing supporting a column and exterior wall/column 𝑁𝑞 = surcharge & depth modifier
• Mat/Raft foundations – footing slab that covers the entire area under a building

Bearing Capacity:
• Allowable bearing capacity 𝑞𝑎 – net pressure in excess of overburden stress that will not cause failure or excessive settlement
• AKA net allowable bearing pressure or safe bearing pressure
• “Allowable” indicates that a safety factor has already been applied
• General Bearing Capacity Equation:
• Ultimate bearing capacity (𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 ) – Terzaghi-Meyerhof Equation for clay and sandy soils
1
• 𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 + 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑝𝑞 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 CERM 36-3
2
• Capacity Factors 𝑁𝛾 𝑁𝑐 & 𝑁𝑞 are from CERM Table 36.2 and dependent on angle of internal friction ∅
• CERM Tables 36.4 (B/L factors for 𝑁𝑐 ) and 36.5 (Shape Factors for 𝑁𝛾 ) should be taken into account for 𝒒𝒖𝒍𝒕
• 𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 is then modified by the overburden, which is the net pressure the soil can support beyond the overburden pressure.
• 𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 − 𝛾𝐷𝑓
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡
• 𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = The safety factors are typically between 2 and 3 (based on 𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) for average conditions
𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
 Abbreviations
B = footing width/diameter
Shallow Foundations 𝐷𝑓 = Depth to bottom of footing
c = cohesion
∅ = angle of internal friction
Bearing Capacity on Sand for a Spread Footing 𝑃𝑔 = Surface surcharge
𝑁𝛾 = Base modifier
Given: Total Load, ρ, ∅, c=0
𝑁𝑐 = cohesion modifier
𝑁𝑞 = surcharge & depth modifier
1
𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾 + 𝑃𝑔 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞
2
Where: 𝑁𝛾 , 𝑁𝑐 , &𝑁𝑞 are from CERM Table 36.2 and
𝑵𝜸 is modified by CERM Table 36.5 Another case includes SPT results and “N” values. So
• 𝑞𝑎 = (0.11) 𝐶𝑛 𝑁 in tons/ft^2 (See CERM 36-7)
Assuming SF=2, 𝛾=100 lbf/ft^3, & 𝐷𝑣 < 𝐵 with B over 2-4 ft, N<50.
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞𝑢𝑙𝑡 − 𝛾𝐷𝑓

𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑞𝑎 =
𝑆𝐹
SF typically can be taken as “2” for sand.

Many Times
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑞
𝑞𝑎 = ≤ 𝑛𝑒𝑡 which can be used to size the footing
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑆𝐹
 Mat/Raft Foundations CERM 36-9
General Considerations:
• A mat/raft foundation should be used when individual footings would occupy over half of an area beneath a building
• Also used to combine foundations with basement floor slabs, to minimize differential settlement on compressible soils.
Mat/Raft on CLAY:
• Only method available to increase allowable loading is to increase 𝐷𝑓
𝑐𝑁𝑐
• Factor of safety available  𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 which should be at least 3 (or 2 under temporary loading)
−𝛾𝐷𝑓
𝐴𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡

• See CERM 36-10 for example

Mat/Raft on SAND:
• Well protected against bearing capacity failure – Depth of potential failure zone 𝑫𝒇 + 𝑩 is very large
• Differential settling is not a factor
• And allowable soil pressure may be DOUBLED
• For common applications, with the prerequisites described on CERM 36-7, and when SPT values are known,
• 𝑞𝑎 = 2(0.11)𝐶𝑤 𝐶𝑛 𝑁
• 𝐶𝑛 must be modified by CERM Table 36.6 (using value @ 𝑫𝒇 + 𝑩) unless N is denoted as “true” or “compensated”
• Use “B” as the shorter of the mat dimensions
• N should be at least 5, after correction, otherwise sand should be compacted or pile/pier foundation should be used
• To calculate Safety Factors, the net bearing capacity 𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 should be compared to the actual bearing pressures
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
• 𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = − 𝛾𝐷𝑓
𝐴𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
• 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 2 The factor of 2 comes from the doubling in the allowable soil pressure mentioned for SAND
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
 At Rest Earth Pressure
Lateral Pressure and Retaining Structures Z

General Considerations: CERM 37 & Essentials-McCarthy (719)

• Earth Pressure Types 𝜎ℎ = 𝐾𝑜 𝜎𝑣
• AT REST: When homogenous isotropic soil, vertical principal stress is = to the overburden
• or 𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑍 Rigid
𝜎 𝑣
• The horizontal pressure is related to vertical pressure by ℎ = = 1 − sin(ϕ′ ) Wall
𝜎𝑣 1−𝑣
′
• Where: ϕ is the effective stress angle of internal friction.
′
• This is valid for OCR = 1. For greater OCR use 𝜎ℎ = 𝜎𝑣 1 − sin(ϕ′ ) 𝑂𝐶𝑅sin(ϕ ) Active & Passive
1
• Pressure per unit length of wall = 𝑃0 = 𝐾𝑜 𝛾𝑡 𝐻 2 Earth Pressure
2
• When submerged, intergranular (effective) stress 𝜎𝑣′
• 𝜎𝑣′ = 𝜎𝑣 − 𝑢
• ACTIVE: Wall and soil movement pushing the wall out (away from the soil mass)
• General Active horizontal earth pressure w/ level backfill: 𝑝𝑎 = 𝑝𝑣 𝐾𝑎 − 2𝑐 𝐾𝑎
• This potentially allows the cohesion to cause tension cracking at the top.
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 λ+ϕ
• General equation for 𝐾𝑎 = 2 see figure  for symbols
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅+𝛿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅−𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 λ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 λ−𝛿 1+
sin λ−𝛿 sin(λ+𝛽)

• This equation is modified by geometry, soil type, and friction theory (CERM 37-3)
∅
• Common (𝛽 = 0 & λ = 90𝑜 ) for dry cohesionless Rankine (no friction 𝛿) soil 𝐾𝑎 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 45 −
2
• Total Active Resultant per unit of wall length(acting at H/3 from bottom):
1 1
• DRY COHESIONLESS SOIL: 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑝𝑎 𝐻 = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐻 2
2 2
1
• INTERNAL FRICTION & COHESION: 𝑅𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐻 2 − 2𝑐 𝐾𝑎 (essentials pg 726)
2
 At Rest Earth Pressure
Lateral Pressure and Retaining Structures Z

General Considerations: CERM 37 & Essentials-McCarthy (719)

• Earth Pressure Types 𝜎ℎ = 𝐾𝑜 𝜎𝑣
• Passive: Wall and soil movement pushing against the soil mass
• General PASSIVE horizontal pressure w/ level backfill: 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑣 𝐾𝑝 + 2𝑐 𝐾𝑝 Rigid
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 λ−ϕ
• General equation for 𝐾𝑝 = 2 see figure  for symbols Wall
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅+𝛿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅+𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 λ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 λ+𝛿 1−
sin λ+𝛿 sin(λ+𝛽)

• This equation is modified by geometry, soil type, and friction theory (CERM 37-4)
Active & Passive
• Common (𝛽 = 0 & λ = 90𝑜 )for dry cohesionless Rankine (no friction 𝛿) soil 𝐾𝑝 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 45 +
∅ Earth Pressure
2
• Total Active Resultant per unit of wall length(acting at H/3 from bottom):
1 1
• DRY COHESIONLESS SOIL: 𝑅𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝 𝐻 = 𝐾𝑝 𝛾𝐻 2
2 2
1
• INTERNAL FRICTION & COHESION: 𝑅𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 𝛾𝐻 2 + 2𝑐 𝐾𝑝 (essentials pg 726)
2
Keywords:
Level backfill  𝛽 = 0
Vertical Wall  λ = 90𝑜
Rankine Theory  No wall friction (𝛿 = 0)
Granular Soil/Sand  𝑐 = 0
Saturated Clay  ∅ = 0 & 𝐾𝑝 = 𝐾𝑎 = 1
Good Visuals on pg 725 & 725 of Essentials McCarthy.
More movement/strain is required to achieve the PASSIVE state than the ACTIVE STATE
Active & Passive similar when top of wall is fixed. When the wall is going away from soil  Active state
Components of 𝑹𝒂 & 𝑹𝒑 (See CERM 37-7)
 Lateral Pressure and Retaining Structures
Lateral Pressure w/ water table behind wall
Effects of Groundwater & Freezing Rigid
• Groundwater affects the way the soil particles react to the wall Wall 𝐻1
• The general equation for pressure is a combination of loads above and below water line #1
• Resulting Pressure per unit length 𝑅𝑎 = #1 + #2 + #3 + #4 𝑜𝑟
1 1 1
• 𝑅𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝑡 𝐻1 2 + 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝑡 𝐻2 2 + 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐻2 2 + 1 − 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐻2 2
2 2 2
σ 𝑅𝑎(𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣) ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠(𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣)
• Acting at a height of ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠 = + + 𝐻2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑎

#2 #3 #4
Surcharge loading Cerm 37-8 & 752 essentials.
• Depends on load type. 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝑡 𝐻1 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐻2 1 − 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐻2
• For distributed load, apply an additional pressure 𝑅𝑎(𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒) = 𝐾𝑎 𝑞𝐻

Above Water Table

Ground Water
Pressure from Soil

Saturated Soil
Pressure from

Pressure from
• Point loads require some equations.
• See CERM 37-8 & Essentials pg 752.

Design Considerations
• Overturning (CERM example pg 37-9)
• Sliding (CERM Example 37-9 & 37-11)
• Bearing Capacity check (CERM Example 37-9)
• General Sizing of Cantilever Retaining Walls (CERM 37-12)
• CONCRETE DESIGN (CERM 54)
 Piles and Deep Foundations
Piles General Information CERM 38 & Essentials McCarthy (538) SEE THE DESIGN EXAMPLES. METHODS CHANGE W/ SOIL
𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡
• Allowable/Design Static Bearing Capacity 𝑄𝑎  𝑄𝑎 =
𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
• Ultimate Static Bearing Capacity 𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡  𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝑄𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑄𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛  𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝑓𝐴𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝑞𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝐴𝑡𝑖𝑝 Where:
• 𝐴𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = effective surface area of pile in contact w/ soil along the embedded shaft length
• f = unit shearing strength of interface soil zone adjacent to pile shaft. Typically varies along length of the pile.
• 𝑞𝑡𝑖𝑝 = bearing pressure of soil at pile tip
• 𝐴𝑡𝑖𝑝 = pile tip bearing area
• 𝑸𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 has more complex methods and will be harder to calculate.
• Between CERM 38-3 and Essentials McCarthy (545), the method you use will depend on information given.
• 𝑄𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠 = (𝑓𝑠 ) 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
• For piles through multiple soil layers: 𝑄𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟) σ 𝑓𝑠,𝑖 𝐿𝑒,𝑖
• 𝑓𝑠 = 𝐾𝜎𝑣 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿  function of shaft material & soil type/condition
• For cohesive soils: 𝑓𝑠 can have a cohesion/adhesion component  𝑓𝑠 = 𝑐𝐴𝑑ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝐾𝜎𝑣 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿 (CERM 38-3)
• External friction values can be found in CERM Table 37.1.
• 𝑄𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
1
• 𝑄𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴𝑝 𝛾𝐵𝑁𝑦 + 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 This is affected by soil type/condition (See CERM 38-2 & Essentials McCarthy 547)
2

Drilled/Bored Piles Can Be Different! (Essentials McCarthy 558 & 562)

Tensile Uplift Capacity? (CERM 38-5 & Essentials McCarthy 556)

 Do Example 38-2 Here
Piles and Deep Foundations In Reference problem book

Pile Groups (CERM 38-5 & Essentials McCarthy 565 & 566 Design Example)
• Common minimum spacing between piles is 3 to 3.5 pile diameters
• This ensures the highest design capacity for a particular grouping
• Design capacity is usually taken as the smaller of the following Capacities:
• Piles Activing Individually
• Sum of individual pile strengths
• Group Action
• Considers the effect of soil btw piles & the group perimeter is important
• See example pg 566 Essentials McCarthy
• In cohesionless soils, the group action will be greater than the sum of the individuals.
• So the sum of the individual capacities will govern the design
• In clays, it can go either way. See example pg 566 Essentials McCarthy

Settlement of piles & pile groups (CERM 38-6 & Essentials McCarthy 568)
• Function of compressive pile shortening & settlement in soil support the piles
• Sand (little settlement) is better than clay (large settlements from excess pore water
pressure dissipation neede).
• The estimation of settlement depends on bearing governance
• When soil friction governs  a larger area underneath is considered, up to 2/3 L
• When pile tip bearing governs  there isn’t going to be much settlement
 Excavations & Alternate Retaining Structures 758
Excavations (CERM 39-1 & Essentials McCarthy 768 & 773)
• Earth
Do Example 39-2 Here
In Reference problem book