THE ANATOMY OF A CHEMICAL MANUFACTURING

PROCESS

The basic components of a typical chemical process are

shown in Figure , in which each block represents a stage
in the overall process for producing a product from the raw
materials. Figure 1 represents a generalised process; not
all the stages will be needed for any particular process,
and the complexity of each stage will depend on the
nature of the process. Chemical engineering design is
concerned with the selection and arrangement of the
stages, and the selection, specification and design of the
equipment required to perform the stage functions.
 Stage 1. Raw material storage
Unless the raw materials (also called essential materials, or
feed stocks) are supplied as intermediate products
(intermediates) from a neighbouring plant, some provision will
have to be made to hold several days, or weeks, storage to
smooth out fluctuations and interruptions in supply. Even when
the materials come from an adjacent plant some provision is
usually made to hold a few hours, or even days, supply to
decouple the processes. The storage required will depend on
the nature of the raw materials, the method of delivery, and
what assurance can be placed on the continuity of supply. If
materials are delivered by ship (tanker or bulk carrier) several
weeks stocks may be necessary; whereas if they are received
by road or rail, in smaller lots, less storage will be needed.
 Stage 2. Feed preparation
Some purification, and preparation, of the raw materials will
usually be necessary before they are sufficiently pure, or in the
right form, to be fed to the reaction stage. For example,
acetylene generated by the carbide process contains arsenical
and sulphur compounds, and other impurities, which must be
removed by scrubbing with concentrated sulphuric acid (or ther
processes) before it is sufficiently pure for reaction with
hydrochloric acid to produce dichloroethane. Liquid feeds will
need to be vaporised before being fed to gasphase reactors
and solids may need crushing, grinding and screening.
 Stage 3, Reactor
The reaction stage is the heart of a chemical manufacturing
process. In the reactor the raw materials are brought together
under conditions that promote the production of the desired
product; invariably, by-products and unwanted compounds
(impurities) will also be formed.
 Stage 4. Product separation
In this first stage after the reactor the products and by-products
are separated from any unreacted material. If in sufficient
quantity, the unreacted material will be recycled to the reactor.
They may be returned directly to the reactor, or to the feed
purification and preparation stage. The by-products may also
be separated from the products at this stage.
Stage 5. Purification
Before sale, the main product will usually need purification to
meet the product specification. If produced in economic
quantities, the by-products may also be purified for sale.
 Stage 6. Product storage
Some inventory of finished product must be held to match
production with sales. Provision for product packaging and
transport will also be needed, depending on the nature of the
product. Liquids will normally be dispatched in drams and in
bulk tankers (road, rail and sea), solids in sacks, cartons or
bales. The stock held will depend on the nature of the product
and the market.
Ancillary processes
In addition to the main process stages shown in Figure,
provision will have to be made for the supply of the services
(utilities) needed; such as, process water, cooling water,
compressed air, steam. Facilities will also be needed for
maintenance, firefighting, offices and other accommodation,
and laboratories;
 Continuous and batch processes:
Continuous processes are designed to operate 24 hours a day,
7 days a week, throughout the year. Some down time will be
allowed for maintenance and, for some processes, catalyst
regeneration. The plant attainment; that is, the percentage of
the available hours in a year that the plant operates, will usually
be 90 to 95%.

Batch processes are designed to operate intermittently. Some,

or all, the process units being frequently shut down and started
up.

Continuous processes will usually be more economical for large

scale production. Batch processes are used where some
flexibility is wanted in production rate or product specification.
Choice of continuous versus batch production
The choice between batch or continuous operation will not be clear cut, but the following
rules can be used as a guide.
Continuous
L Production rate greater than 5 x 106 kg/h
2. Single product
3. No severe fouling
4. Good catalyst life
5. Proven processes design
6. Established market
Batch
1. Production rate less than 5 x 106 kg/h
2. A range of products or product specifications
3. Severe fouling
4. Short catalyst life
5. New product
6. Uncertain design
CODES AND STANDARDS

The need for standardisation arose early in the evolution of

the modern engineering
industry; Whitworth introduced the first standard screw thread
to give a measure of
interchangeabili ty between different manufacturers in 1841,
Modern engineering standards
cover a much wider function than the interchange of parts, hi
engineering practice
they cover:
1. Materials, properties and compositions.
2. Testing procedures for performance, compositions, quality.
3. Preferred sizes; for example, tubes, plates, sections.
4. Design methods, inspection, fabrication.
5. Codes of practice, for plant operation and safety.
The terms STANDARD and CODE are used interchangeably,
though CODE should really be reserved for a code of practice
covering say, a recommended design or operating procedure; and
STANDARD for preferred sizes, compositions, etc.

All of the developed countries, and many of the developing

countries, have national standards organisations, responsible for
the issue and maintenance of standards for the manufacturing
industries, and for the protection of consumers. In the United
Kingdom preparation and promulgation of national standards are
the responsibility of the British Standards Institution (BSI). The
Institution has a secretariat and a number of technical personnel,
but the preparation of the standards is largely the responsibility of
committees of persons from the appropriate industry, the
professional engineering institutions and other interested
organisations.
In the United States the government organisation responsible for
coordinating information on standards is the National Bureau of
Standards; standards are issued by Federal, State and various
commercial organisations.
The principal ones of interest to chemical engineers are those
issued by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the
American Petroleum Institute (API), the American Society for
Testing Materials (ASTM), and the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) (pressure vessels). Burklin (1979) gives a
comprehensive list of the American codes and standards.
The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO)
coordinates the publication of international standards.
NIST-National institute of standards and technology
NFPA-National fire protection association
TEMA-Tubular exchanger manufacturers association
ISA-International society of automation