2 Models, Principles and Development of

Curriculum Design
THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
• Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process whether it is a
school, college, university or training organisation. The textbooks used, how
teachers are trained, development of instructional plans, evaluation of
students, preparation of guides for both students and teachers, and setting
of standards, are all based on the curriculum.
• Without a curriculum no educational institution can function efficiently.
Given such importance to curriculum, a number of questions are raised:-
How is it developed? How is it organised? Who develops it? What are the
principles in developing a curriculum? How do we know whether the
curriculum is successful?
 THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS (cont.)

• Curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing the teaching-learning

experiences that students encounter in an educational institution. The
process of providing the plan and keeping it running smoothly is known
as curriculum development, which includes planning (determination of
aims and goals), design, implementation and evaluation.
• Curriculum improvement is often used synonymously with curriculum
development, though in some cases improvement is viewed as the result of
development (Oliva, 1982). Curriculum development is a process that
continuously strives to find newer, better and more efficient means to
accomplish the task of educating the next generation.
Models of curriculum
design
What is a model? Definition:
• A model consists of interacting parts that serves as a guide or
procedure for action. Some models are simple while others are
very complex. In many instances, models are more similar than
different and are often refinements or revisions of earlier models.
• A simplified representation of reality which is often depicted in
diagrammatic(graphic) form.
What is a model? Purpose:

• To provide a structure for examining the elements that go to

make up curriculum planning, and how these elements
interrelate.
The development of a curriculum involves the developer in
decisions about the nature and appropriateness of the
substantive(essential/fundamental) elements, eg the:

• outcomes
• content
• method
• assessment strategies (evaluation)
These decisions are made in relation to the context in which the curriculum will
operate
 A Thematic Curriculum Framework is...

A set of organized experiences such as programs,

courses, and other school-sponsored activities
that provide students with exposure to a broad,
predominate (powerful) theme.
 TYLER’S OBJECTIVES MODEL
• Also sometimes called the sequential, rational,
behavioural or means – end model (product).
• This longstanding yet still seminal (important/influential)
model has regained significance since the advent of
outcomes-based education in the 1990s and the
consequent emphasis on planning from outcomes; that
is, using outcomes as the basis for the selection of
content, teaching/learning methods and assessment
strategies.
• Tyler describes learning as taking place through the
action of the learner, not what the teacher does.
TYLER’S MODEL (1949) - introduced in 1949
by Ralph Walter Tyler in his classic book Basic
Principles of Curriculum and Instruction
Key Emphasis:
• Instructional Objective (Instructional objectives: a detailed description
that states how an instructor will use an instructional activity , innovation
or program to reach the desired learning objective(s).
Purpose:
• To measure students progress towards objectives
Method
• 1. Specify Instructional Objectives
• 2. Collect performance Data
• 3. Compare performance data with the
objectives/standards specified

*Tyler: Fondly called ‘Father of Behavioral Objectives’ – developed an

objective-based evaluation model
Objectives model ((RALPH TYLER)
• Stating objectives

• Selecting learning experiences

• Organising learning experiences

• Evaluation
 Establish the Purpose
• Develop Objectives
a description of a performance you want learners to be
able to exhibit before you consider them competent.
• Describes an intended result of instruction, rather than
the process of instruction itself.
• Educational objectives become the criteria for selecting
materials, content outlined, instructional methods and
tests prepared.
Why do you need instructional objectives in
your curriculum?

1. When clearly defined objectives are lacking,

there is
• no sound basis for the selection or designing of
instructional materials, content, or methods.
• If you don't know where you are going, it is difficult
to select a suitable means for getting there.
Why do you need instructional objectives in
your curriculum?

2. To find out whether or not the objective, has in fact

been accomplished.
• Test items designed to measure whether important
instructional outcomes have been accomplished can
be selected or created intelligently only when those
instructional outcomes have been made explicit.
 Why do you need instructional objectives in
your curriculum?

3. Good objectives provide students with a means to

organize their own efforts toward accomplishment of
those objectives.
• Experience has shown that with clear objectives in view,
students at all levels are better able to decide what
activities on their part will help them get to where it is
important for them to go.
 Good Objectives. . .

• Are related to intended outcomes rather than the process

for achieving those outcomes.
• specific and measurable, rather than broad and intangible
(indefinable/imperceptible).
• Are concerned with students, not teachers.
 How are these experiences organized?

• From simple to complex

• From general to specific
• Experiences should build on each other
 The Tylerian Model
This model was developed by Ralph Tyler to
simplify the curriculum development process.

Consists of four primary steps…

• Development of performance objectives
• Development of activities
• Organization of activities
• Evaluation
(Ornstein page 185)
 There are 4 Basic steps
(Tyler Rationale)
1) What is the purpose of the education?
(What educational purposes should the school
seek to attain?)…meaning, defining appropriate
learning objectives.
By "purposes", Tyler was referring to "objectives" and when
developing curriculum objectives data should be gathered
from three sources; namely, the subject area (e.g. Science,
Mathematics, Geography, History), the learners (e.g.
economically disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic
abilities) and society (e.g. ethics, patriotism, national unity,
environmental awareness, employment, market needs).
• After identifying the objectives (which are the desired
learning outcomes), the curriculum developer has to pass
them through two screens: the *philosophy screen and
the **psychology screen. Resulting from this are specific
instructional objectives which state the kind of outcomes
that are observable and measurable.
*Philosophy of education is the study of questions such as "What is education?", “What is the
purpose of education?”, "What does it mean to know something?" and “What is the relationship
between education and society?” For example, when you propose the teaching of a particular
body of knowledge, course or subject, you will be asked, "What is your philosophy for introducing
that content?" Eg of philosophy of education: Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, Existentialism
(Topic 3:pg. 66)

** Psychology of education. The question of how people learn. A basis for understanding the
teaching and learning process. How do cultural experiences affect students’ learning? What
impact does the school culture have on students’ learning? Eg of psychology of education:
Behaviourism, Cognitive, Multiple Intelligence, Constructivism, Emotional Intelligence (Topic 4: pg 93)
2) What educational experiences will attain the purposes?
(How can learning experiences be selected which are likely to
be useful in these objectives?) …meaning, introducing useful
learning experiences.
The next step is the selection of educational experiences which enable
the attainment of the stipulated objectives. The learning experiences
have to take into account the previous experiences learners bring to a
situation. The learning experiences will have to be selected based on
what is known about human learning and human development.
3) How can these experiences be effectively
organized?
(How can learning experiences be
organized for effective
instruction?)…meaning, organizing
experiences to maximize their effect.
He emphasised that the experiences should be properly
organised so as to enhance learning and suggested that
ideas, concepts, values and skills be used as organising
elements woven into the curriculum. These elements would
serve as organisers linking content within a particular subject
(e.g. History, Economics, Science) and also determine the
method of instruction or delivery of content.
4) How can we determine when the purposes are met?
(How can the effectiveness of learning experiences be
evaluated?)…meaning, evaluating the end-product and revising that
were not effective.

Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of the

curriculum development process. It was necessary for educators to know
whether the selected learning experiences produced the intended results.
For example, if the objective was to develop critical thinking among
students, did the learning experiences selected achieve this objective?
Through evaluation it will be possible to determine whether the curriculum
was effective or ineffective.
TO RECAP:
• The first step in the model is the stating of objectives
(though ‘outcomes’ could be substituted as the more
contemporary notion of precise statements of intent).
The sources of these objectives include what students
need to know, what society believes should be taught and
what subject specialists consider important. No single
source is adequate, Tyler (1949,p.5) claims, to provide
objectives for the school.
• The second and the third steps involve the selection and
organisation of learning experiences. These are the
means of achieving the ‘ends’ or objectives. So the
learning, experiences (content and method) are selected
to help students achieve the stated objectives. Again, it is
not explicit as to how this should be done.
• The final step of evaluation involves determining to what
extent the objectives/outcomes are being achieved
through the selected content and method. Tyler also
allows for students to be evaluated throughout the
teaching of a curriculum, rather than just at the end. In
fact, Cronbach (1986) claims that Tyler invented
formative evaluation by teachers.
 Strengths of the objectives model

• By making objectives the essential first step, the model

provides a clear direction for the remainder of the
process.
• The model provides a blueprint or set of procedures to
simplify the process. The fixed sequence of steps may
be a helpful aid, particularly for those who are
uncertain about the process.
• It can be applied to all learning areas and levels.
• The sequence of curriculum elements does have logic.
 Weaknesses of the objectives model

• Curriculum development in practice is rarely a fixed or

linear process. The model does not reflect how
teachers develop curriculum.
• Are critical of what they perceive to be the model’s
endorsement of teaching/learning processes that are
static rather than holistic; linear
• Sequential(successive/progressive) rather than
complex and multi-dimensional; and distinct and
separate rather than unified and holistic (Smith and
Lovat)
2. The model or particularly the Tyler rationale, does not
explain where the objectives come from. Kliebard
(1995) describes Tlyer’s philosophical and psychological
screens for selecting meaningful objectives as ‘arbitrary
statements of belief’.
3. By focussing on specific objectives, the model may
constrain what students can learn, and limit the
expression of inquiry and creativity. Tyler is
concerned with evaluating instructional (precise)
objectives and ignores the unintended outcomes of
learning.
5. The model overemphasises measurable
objectives. Many outcomes are qualitative
in nature and therefore less
amenable(agreeable) to quantitative
measurement.
Conclusion:
• While the objectives model is the traditional (and
historical) model, it is not merely a relic(historical
object). The recent emphasis on outcomes, a
legacy of the national curriculum in the early
1990s, may well have rejuvenated an objectives
model of curriculum or program development for
teachers in which outcomes are substituted for
objectives.
 WHEELER’S CYCLICAL MODEL

• While Tyler’s model suggested that evaluation

serves purely to ascertain the extent to which
the objectives stated had been achieved, critics
argued that evaluation need not be a terminal
(final) stage, but should take place at every
stage. For this Wheeler has converted Tyler’s
original ideas into cyclic form.
 2.
1.
Aims, Goals Selection of
and Objectives learning
experiences

5. 3.
Selection of
Evaluation content

4.
Organization
and integration
of leaning
experiences
• Wheeler's Model of Curriculum Design
contains FIVE stages while Tyler's Model
only contains FOUR. Also, Wheeler's model
is CYCLIC and Tyler's model is LINEAR. The
only real similarity is the fact that they are
both curriculum design models.
 Compare And Contrast Tyler's Model And
Wheeler's
WHEELER TYLER

MODEL Curriculum design model Curriculum design model

DESIGN Cyclic Linear

CONTENT Separated from learning Not separated from learning

experiences experiences

STAGES Five-stage Four-stage

EVALUATION Evaluation is done at every stage Evaluation is terminal(Evaluation

and the results are fed back into serves purely to ascertain the
the system extent to which the objectives has
been achieved)
 HILDA TABA’S INTERACTION MODEL
• The interaction or dynamic model, initially presented by Taba
as early as 1962, shows a different relationship among the
curriculum elements. Curriculum development is seen to be a
dynamic process that can begin with any curriculum
element and follow any sequence among them.
• Instead of the elements comprising a fixed sequence, they are
regarded as interactive and progressively modifiable ( a
change made to one element may necessitate further
objectives, methods, and assessment strategies. So the
developer can move to and fro among the elements,
returning to change or modify them.
• The terms given to the steps in the process are those in Tyler’s
objective Model.
Stating objectives Organising learning
objectives

Selecting learning
Evaluation
experiences
• Inductive: Specific examples to Generalization

In the inductive approach, curriculum workers

start with the specifics and build up to a general
design as opposed to the more traditional
deductive approach of starting with the general
design and working down to the specifics.
 Steps in Taba model:
• 1. Diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society.
• 2. Formulation of learning objectives.
• 3. Selection of the learning content.
• 4. Organization of learning content.
• 5. Selection of the learning experiences.
• 6. Organization of learning activities.
• 7. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it.
 1. Diagnosis of learners needs and
expectations of the larger society.

• Diagnose of achievement.
• Diagnosis of students as learner.
• Diagnosis of curriculum problems.
 Systematic diagnosis process:

• 1. Problem identification
• 2. Problem analysis
• 3. Formulating hypothesis and gathering data
• 4. Experimenting with action
 2. Formulation of learning objectives.

Main objectives of education are:

• To add to knowledge they posses.
• To enable them to perform skills which otherwise they would not perform.
• To develop certain understanding, insights and appreciations.
• Development of healthy personality.
• Analysis of particular culture and society which educational program serves.
 Function of educational objectives
• Transmit culture
• Reconstruct society
• Fullest development of individual
• To guide on curriculum decision onWhat to cover? What to emphasize?
What content to select? Which learning experiences to stress?
• Principle of formulation of objectives:
Objective should useful, cleared and
concreteness Objective should describe both kind of behavior i.e.
expected and content Objective should be realistic Scope of objective
should be broad.
 Principle of formulation of objectives

• Objective should useful, clear and concrete

• Objective should describe both kind of behavior i.e. expected and content
• Objective should be realistic
• Scope of objective should be broad.
 3. Selection and
4. Organization of content

• Content should be rational base

• Validity and significance of content
• Consistency with social realities
• Appropriateness to the need and interest of students
• Making proper distinctions between the various levels of content
 5. Organization
6. Selection of the learning experiences
• This involves more then applying principles of learning.
• Have you used a variety of teaching methods?
• When using lecture will you make that active with questions and discussion?
• Are there opportunities for students to learn from one another?
• Are there opportunities for students to apply what they are learning through
solving real problems or developing projects that could be used in a real
work setting?
 7. Determination of what to evaluate and the
means of doing it

• Plans need to be made for evaluation.

• How should the quality of learning be evaluated to assure that the ends of
education are being achieved?
• How does one make sure that there is consistency between the aims and
objectives and what is actually achieved by students?
• Does the curriculum organization provide experiences which offer optimum
opportunities for all varieties of learners to attain independent goals?
Taba believed that:
• To evolve a theory of curriculum development and a method of thinking
about it, one needs to ask what demands and requirements of culture and
society both are, both for the present and the future.
• Curriculum is a way of preparing young people to participate in our culture.
 Application of the Taba model

Taba model is currently used in most curriculum designs.

• Identifying the needs of the students.
• Developing objectives
• Selecting instructional method
• Organizing learning experiences
• Evaluating
 Strengths of the interaction model
• As curriculum development is rarely a linear process, the model may be a
truer reflection of the reality of curriculum development. An early study
by Brady (1989) found that content was the starting point.

• The option of following any sequence among the curriculum elements is

more ‘psychologically’ efficient; that is, it is how people actually do
things. Brady’s early research found that the sequence COME (content,
objectives/outcomes, method, evaluation/assessment) was followed
significantly more often than the sequence OCME
(objectives/outcomes, content, method, evaluation/assessment), and
the sequence was variable(flexible) according to learning area.
• The model allows the developer to move to and fro
among the curriculum elements. The developer is
therefore not constrained by a fixed procedure and can
pursue whatever is of interest.
• Nor should teachers feel capricious(unpredictable) for
repeatedly changing their minds during the curriculum
development. There is no reason why it should not be
regarded a legitimate for teachers to change direction,
reappraise and modify.
 Weaknesses of the interaction
model
• The interaction model does not necessarily specify
objectives/outcomes as the starting point. The possible
danger is the objectives/outcomes may simply be
accommodated to the content specification and thereby
be contrived(fixed) and decorative.
• The model is not systematic in that there is no clear
sequence. Critics feel that changing direction at will
during the process of curriculum development may be
reflected in a piecemeal(disjointed) finished product.
 To recap:
• Gives teachers a greater role by not just making them implementers of the
curriculum but also developers
• Uses the inductive method
• Teacher approach is used
• Notes that teachers are aware of the students’ needs therefore they are the
ones that should develop the curriculum
• Sees curriculum as a “plan for learning”
• Gives importance to objectives in order to establish a sense of purpose for
deciding what to include, exclude and emphasize in a curriculum.
 Tutorial & ISL Task
Tutorial Task
• What is the difference between the objectives model and the process model of curriculum
design?
• As a student teacher, which model or models of curriculum design do you think your
national school curriculum was based?
• How does the model affect what you actually teach in class?
ISL Task
• Read:Ministry of Education, Malaysia. (2013). Malaysia
Education Blueprint 2013-2025 (Preschool to Post-Secondary Education). Kuala Lumpur: KPM.
• Identify the core curriculum in Malaysian schools an Institute of Teacher Education