Pumps, fans, blowers, and compressors are all devices that move fluids across an adverse pressure difference,

i.e., from a
region of lower pressure to a region of higher pressure. The fluid may require the higher pressure to overcome frictional
losses in subsequent piping, to participate in a high-pressure operation such as a chemical reactor, or to serve as the drive
medium in a hydraulic or pneumatic system. Or the objective may lie on the inlet side of the device where it is desired to
maintain vacuum in some region, in which case the pressure on the outlet side may simply be atmospheric. In any of
these cases there may or may not be a change in net velocity.

The two broad categories of fluid to be moved are liquids and gases. Liquids are moved by pumps; gases are moved by
fans, blowers, and compressors. The main differences between the moving of liquids and the moving of gases are that
gases undergo significant changes in volume and temperature if the rise in pressure is appreciable. Along with liquids
and gases, there are more complex fluid media, such as liquid–gas mixtures, liquids that partially vaporize, gases that
condense, slurries that consist of a liquid containing solid particles, and gas–particulate mixtures, all of which may
require special handling or special equipment.

Fluid movers fall into two general types: kinetically driven and positive displacement. Kinetically driven devices impart
internal velocity to the fluid, and then convert this momentum to pressure at the exit. Positive-displacement devices trap
incremental volumes of lower pressure fluid and transport it forcibly into the region of higher pressure.

Gas movers
Four types of device are used for moving gases. Depending on the pressure range and pressure change a gas may be
moved by a
• Vacuum pump
• Fan
• Blower
• Compressor

Vacuum pumps create an internal zone of low pressure into which the gas in a region of sub-atmospheric pressure is
induced to flow. A single stage of vacuum pumping discharges to atmospheric pressure. With multiple stages, the
discharge of intermediate stages is to sub-atmospheric pressure.
Large fans are usually centrifugal, operating on exactly the same principle as centrifugal pumps. Fan impellers are
mounted inside light sheet-metal casings. Clearances are large and discharge heads low from 130 to 1500 mm water
gauge. Sometimes, as in ventilating fans, nearly all the added energy is converted into velocity energy and almost none
into pressure head. One difference between pumps and gas equipments recognize the effect of pressure and temperature
on the density of the gas entering the machine. Gas equipment is ordinarily rated in terms of standard cubic meters. A
volume in standard cubic meters is that measured at a specified temperature and pressure regardless of the actual
temperature and pressure of the gas to the machine.

Blowers and Compressors

When the pressure on a compressible fluid is increased adiabatically, the temperature of the fluid also increases. The
temperature rise has a number of disadvantages. Because the specific volume of the fluid increases with temperature, the
work required to compress a unit mass of fluid is larger than if the compression were isothermal. Excessive temperatures
lead to problems with lubricants, stuffing boxes and material of construction. The fluid may be one that cannot tolerate
high temperatures without decomposition.

For a given gas, the temperature ratio increases with increase in the compression ratio. In blowers with a compression
ratio below about 3 or 4, the adiabatic temperature rise is not large, and no special provision is made to reduce it. In
compressors, however, where the compression ratio may be as high as 10 or more, the temperature rise becomes
excessive. Also, since actual compressors are not frictionless, the heat from friction is also absorbed by the gas, and
temperatures well above the isentropic temperature are attained. Compressors are therefore cooled by jackets through
which cold water or refrigerant is circulated. For multistage compression, inter-stage coolers are used. Often, an after-
cooler is used to cool the high pressure gas from the final stage.
Fans generally add only a small amount of pressure to a gas, generally no more than 20 kPa (60 in. of water). Fluid
compressibility can be ignored in the calculations. Typically, fans pull vapors from a slightly sub-atmospheric region and
discharge to atmosphere or they pull from the atmosphere and discharge to a space that is slightly above atmospheric
pressure. For example, in the former case, they may be removing unwanted vapors; in the latter, they may be supplying
fresh air.
Blowers and compressors impart significant positive pressure to gases. Such devices may have several stages, where the
suction pressure of the first is atmospheric and that of subsequent stages is higher. In these devices it is necessary to take
account of change in density with pressure and also the heat evolved by work done on the gas. Most manufacturing plants
use fans and blowers for ventilation and for industrial processes that need an air flow. Fan systems are essential to keep
manufacturing processes working, and consist of a fan, an electric motor, a drive system, ducts or piping, flow control
devices, and air conditioning equipment (filters, cooling coils, heat exchangers, etc.).

Fans, blowers and compressors are differentiated by the method used to move the air, and by the system pressure they must
operate against. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) uses the specific ratio, which is the ratio of the
discharge pressure over the suction pressure, to define fans, blowers and compressors (see Table 1).

Blowers can achieve much higher pressures than fans, as

high as 1.20 kg/cm2. They are also used to produce
negative pressures for industrial vacuum systems.
Rotary Lobe
Two straight mating lobed impellers trap the gas and
carry it from intake to discharge (Figure 5). There is no
internal compression.
Compressors are mechanical devices that compress gases. It is widely used in industries and has various applications.
Major difference is that compressors handle the gases and pumps handles the liquids. As gases are compressible, the
compressor also reduces the volume of gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible.

Compressors have many everyday uses, such as in :

Air conditioners, (car, home)
Home and industrial refrigeration
Hydraulic compressors for industrial machines
Air compressors for industrial manufacturing

Main Components of Compressed Air Systems

Compressed air systems consist of following major components: Intake air filters, inter-stage coolers, after-coolers, air-
dryers, moisture drain traps, receivers, piping network, filters, regulators and lubricators.
§ Intake Air Filters : Prevent dust from entering a compressor; Dust causes sticking valves, scoured cylinders,
excessive wear etc.
§ Inter-stage Coolers : Reduce the temperature of the air before it enters the next stage to reduce the work of
compression and increase efficiency. They are normally water-cooled.
§ After-Coolers: The objective is to remove the moisture in the air by reducing the temperature in a water-cooled
heat exchanger.
§ Air-dryers : The remaining traces of moisture after after-cooler are removed using air dryers, as air for
instrument and pneumatic equipment has to be relatively free of any moisture. The moisture is removed by using
adsorbents like silica gel /activated carbon, or refrigerant dryers, or heat of compression dryers.
§ Moisture Drain Traps: Moisture drain traps are used for removal of moisture in the compressed air. These traps
resemble steam traps. Various types of traps used are manual drain cocks, timer based / automatic drain valves
etc.
§ Receivers : Air receivers are provided as storage and smoothening pulsating air output - reducing pressure
variations from the compressor.
 What are positive displacement
compressors?
Positive displacement compressors causes movement by trapping a fixed
amount of air then forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge
pipe.

It can be further classified according to the mechanism used to move air.

 Rotary Compressor
 Reciprocating compressor
 Rotary compressors
The gas is compressed by the rotating action of
a roller inside a cylinder.

The roller rotates off-centre around a shaft so

that part of the roller is always in contact with the
cylinder.

 Volume of the gas occupies is reduced and the

refrigerant is compressed.

High efficient as sucking and compressing

refrigerant occur simultaneously.
 Reciprocating compressor

It is a positive-displacement compressor that

 Uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver

gases at high pressure.

The intake gas enters the suction manifold, then

flows into the compression cylinder

It gets compressed by a piston driven in a

reciprocating motion via a crankshaft,

Discharged at higher pressure

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
Detailed Analysis
Block diagram of reciprocating
compressor
It is a piston and cylinder
device with (automatic)
spring controlled inlet and
exhaust valves

There is a clearance
between the piston crown
and the top of the
cylinder.
 Centrifugal Compressor
Achieves compression by applying inertial forces to the gas by means of
rotating impellers.

It is multiple stage ; each stage consists of an impeller as the rotating

element and the stationary element, i.e. diffuser

 Fluid flow enters the impeller axially and discharged radially

 The gas next flows through a circular chamber (diffuser), where it loses
velocity and increases pressure.
Centrifugal compressors
Centrifugal compressors are dynamic machines in which the rapidly
rotating impeller accelerates the gas (Figure 7). The process flow
propagates from axial to radial (perpendicular to shaft centerline) into
a stationary diffuser converting velocity to pressure.

The heart of a centrifugal compressor is its impeller (sometimes called

the wheel). The principle of operation is similar for centrifugal
compressors, blowers, and fans and the impeller design is similar to
that of a fan. Since the gas leaving the impeller has significant velocity
the casing design employs a diffuser (static vanes) to reduce velocity
and gain static pressure, as shown in Fig. 27. (This technique is also
sometimes used with centrifugal pumps.)
Centrifugal compressors, like centrifugal pumps, at a given speed and throughput generate a constant head rather than
constant pressure. When the same compressor is operating with a different gas, the compressor will produce the same
head but not the same differential pressure. For this reason, low molecular weight gases (less than 10) are not practically
handled by centrifugal devices because to achieve a reasonable pressure, the required head is too large for any
industrially available centrifugal compressor; a reciprocating compressor is normally used instead.

Two-lobe blower
Centrifugal compressors are extremely popular because most are close to being oil-free. Although oil that is used in the
compressor can create an aerosol, the special sealing systems used in most centrifugals reduce oil contamination to very
low levels. Centrifugals are also popular because of the very large capacities that are possible with a single compressor,
combined with fairly high pressures with multiple stages. Centrifugals are economically attractive when flows are high,
and they are the only choice in many high-flow/ pressure situations.

If other compressors are available that will meet the same pressure /flow requirements, centrifugals are preferred when
the process requirement allows for a fixed pressure ratio and requires oil-free gas. If centrifugal and reciprocating
compressors have similar costs, the centrifugal is selected for its reliability advantages and lower life-cycle costs. It
should be kept in mind that centrifugal units often have higher installed costs than reciprocal and screw compressors for
the same pressure /flow range, and they are inflexible to changes in pressure ratios, i.e., their capacities drop significantly
as the discharge pressure rises.

Axial Compressors
Axial compressors, as shown schematically in Fig. 28, operate with a rotor fitted with successive rows of blades, which
move the gas forward. Between the rows of rotating blades are rows of static blades, which remove swirl and keep the
flow axial. The space between rotor and barrel becomes progressively smaller, causing the gas to speed up and acquire
kinetic energy. The blades are aerodynamically shaped to achieve maximum thrust and minimum drag. Axial
compressors are typically 8–10% more efficient than centrifugal compressors.
 Axial flow compressor
Working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation.

 The energy level of air or gas flowing through it is increased by the

action of the rotor blades which exert a torque on the fluid

Have the benefits of high efficiency and

large mass flow rate

Require several rows of airfoils to achieve

large pressure rises making them complex and
expensive
 Advantages and Disadvantages of dynamic compressors

Advantages Disadvantages

Dynamic
Compressors
Centrifugal •Wide operating range •Instability at reduced flow
•High reliability •Sensitive to gas composition
•Low Maintenance change

Axial •High Capacity for given •Low Compression ratios

size •Limited turndown
•High efficiency
•Heavy duty
•Low maintenance
Advantages and disadvantages of positive displacement
type compressor
Advantages Disadvantages
Positive displacement
compressor
Reciprocating •Wide pressure ratios •Heavy foundation required
•High efficiency •Flow pulsation
•High maintenance

Diaphragm •Very high pressure •Limited capacity range

•Low flow •Periodic replacement of
•No moving seal diaphragm

Screw •Wide application •Expensive

•High efficiency •Unsuitable for corrosive or dirty
•High pressure ratio gases
 Why multistage compressor?
High temp rise leads into limitation for the maximum achievable pressure
rise.
Discharge temperature shall not exceed 150ºC and should not exceed 1350C
for hydrogen rich services
A multistage centrifugal compressor compresses air to the required
pressure in multiple stages.
Intercoolers are used in between each stage to removes heat and decrease
the temperature of gas so that gas could be compressed to higher pressure
without much rise in temperature

Intercooler
Multistage compression
One way of improving efficiency, especially at higher compression ratios and speeds, is to go to multistage compression
with cooling of the gas between each stage. To avoid unacceptable reductions in compressor capacity (RPM and
volumetric efficiency) and to minimise power input with high compression ratios, multistaging with inter-cooling is used.
The number of stages will normally be between two and four. Each stage may be treated as a separate compressor,
however, with multistaging, all will normally rotate at the same speed.
The volumetric efficiency of the compressor as a whole is determined by the first stage. If the inter-cooling is such that
the inlet temperature to the following stage(s) is the same as the inlet temperature to the first stage we have ideal (or
perfect) inter-cooling. Since the work input to any stage is dependent on the pressure ratio across it, it should be possible
to minimise the total work input by the correct choice of compression ratio across each stage.
Vacuum pumps
Vacuum pumps are equipments used to generate vacuum, it is similar to air compressors. It's even possible to generate
compressed air or vacuum with the same machine, depending on how it is installed. Vacuum pumps generally can be
considered as compressors in which the discharge, rather than the intake, is at atmospheric pressure. The vacuum in a
chamber is created by physically removing air molecules and exhausting them from the system.
Removing air from the enclosed system progressively decreases air density within the confined space, thus causing the
absolute pressure of the remaining gas to drop, a vacuum is created.
Basic Operation
A vacuum pump converts the mechanical input energy of a rotating shaft into pneumatic energy by evacuating the air
contained within a system. The internal pressure level thus becomes lower than that of the outside atmosphere. The amount
of energy produced depends on the volume evacuated and the pressure difference produced.
Mechanical vacuum pumps use the same pumping mechanism as air compressors, except that the unit is installed so that
air is drawn from a closed volume and exhausted to the atmosphere. A major difference between a vacuum pump and other
types of pumps is that the pressure driving the air into the pump is below atmospheric and becomes vanishingly small at
higher vacuum levels. Other differences between air compressors and vacuum pumps are:

The maximum pressure difference produced by pump action can never be higher than 29.92 in. Hg (14.7 psi), since this
represents a perfect vacuum.
The mass of air drawn into the pump on each suction stroke, and hence the absolute pressure change, decreases as the
vacuum level increases.
At high vacuum levels, there is significantly less air passing through the pump. Therefore, virtually all the heat generated
by pump operation will have to be absorbed and dissipated by the pump structure itself.

Vacuum Stages
As in compression, the vacuum-generating process can be accomplished in just one pass through a pumping chamber. Or
several stages may be required to obtain the desired vacuum. The mechanical arrangements are also similar to those for air
compression. The discharge port of the first stage feeds the intake port of the second stage. This reduces the pressure, and
hence the density, of air trapped in the clearance volume of the first stage.
Oil-Less vs. Oil-Lubricated Vacuum Pumps
As with compressors, the application normally dictates whether an oil-less or oil-lubricated vacuum pump should be used.
Either type may be used in many applications.
Oil-Less - Oil-less pumps are almost essential when production processes cannot tolerate any oil vapor carry over into the
exhaust air. They also can be justified on the basis of avoiding the cost and time of regularly refilling the oil reservoirs.
This is particularly important when the pumps are to be mounted in inaccessible locations. Modern piston pumps have
rings of filled Teflon, which provide hundreds of hours of duty, depending on ambient temperature and air cleanliness.
Oil-Lubricated - The oil-lubricated types have distinct advantages if proper maintenance is provided. They can usually
provide about 20 percent higher vacuums because the lubricant acts as a sealant between moving parts. And they usually
last about 50 percent longer than oil-less units in normal service because of their cooler operation. They also are less
subject to corrosion from condensed water vapor.

Steam Ejectors Vacuum Systems

The jet apparatus consists of three principal parts: a converging nozzle for liquid actuated jets or an expanding nozzle for
gas actuated jets; and a diffuser and a body to hold these parts in their proper relative positions. The ejector transforms
energy of pressure into energy of motion and operates as follows.

Motive power is provided by a high-pressure stream of fluid directed through a nozzle designed to produce the highest
velocity possible. The motive fluid, issuing from the nozzle, entrains the suction fluid in the mixing chamber (body) which
produces a uniformly mixed stream traveling at a lower velocity. The diffuser is so shaped that it gradually reduces the
velocity and converts the energy to pressure at discharge with as little loss as possible. Steam jet exhausters and
compressors are air and gas pumps designed to operate on the jet principle at moderately high vacuum with live steam as
the motive force. In operation, live steam enters the exhauster through an inlet and flows through an expanding nozzle.
Issuing from the nozzle at high velocity the jet discharges into the diffuser, produces a powerful suction which entrains air
or vapors through suction connection, and compresses the air or vapor enough to discharge against back pressure.
Steam-jet ejector system
Ejectors consist of six basic parts:
1. Motive Fluid Chest
2. Converging/Diverging Nozzle
3. Mixing Chamber
4. Converging Inlet Diffuser
5. Diverging Outlet Diffuser
6. Diffuser Throat
The operating principle of the ejector is that the pressure energy in the motive fluid (1) is converted to velocity energy by
an adiabatic expansion in the Converging/Diverging Nozzle (2). The Nozzle exit velocity is normally in the supersonic
range of 3000 to 4000 feet/second when using steam as the motive fluid. (Velocities may vary depending on molecular
weight, temperature, and pressure of the motive fluid.) This high-velocity (cone shaped) jet enters the Mixing Chamber (3)
and entrains the suction fluid being pumped. The mixture attains a velocity of approximately 2000 to 3000 feet per second.
The mixed motive fluid and suction fluid then enter the Converging Inlet Diffuser (4) where a portion of the velocity
energy is converted to pressure energy. The mixture is then compressed in the Diverging Outlet (5) section of the Diffuser
to attain the final discharge pressure, normally 5 to 15 times the suction pressure. There is a corresponding rise in mixture
temperature as this compression occurs.
Ejectors can be operated with many different motive fluids: steam, air, organic vapor and other gases.
•Can handle corrosive and slugging liquids, solid and abrasive suction fluids without damage.
•Simple, rugged, reliable and trouble-free. No moving parts, no lubrication, no vibration, no bearing or seal problems.
(Available with flanged or weld end connections.)
•Explosion-proof construction. Ejectors can be installed indoors or outdoors with versatile mounting design.
•Low initial cost, low maintenance cost, long life.
•Can handle high volumes of suction fluid at low absolute pressures.
Kinetically Driven, Ejectors
The gas-driven ejector is the non-rotary member of the kinetically driven family. Ejectors continue to be a common
means of creating and maintaining vacuum, chiefly because of their low capital cost and the absence of moving parts.
They are used not only for vacuum but in other applications where it is desired to combine two streams of different
pressures into a single stream of intermediate pressure (the devices are sometimes call thermo-compressors).

The principle is to create a zone of very low pressure by raising a high-pressure motive stream (e.g., steam) to supersonic
velocity. Suction gas or vapor is drawn into this zone where it combines with the motive fluid. The mixed stream, also at
supersonic velocity, is slowed down and its pressure recovers to a level intermediate between that of the motive and
suction streams.

A two-stage ejector system is shown in Fig. 30, in this case using a pre-condenser and an inter-condenser to reduce the
vapor load, as can be done for a condensable motive gas like steam. The method of control is shown, whereby a ‘‘bleed’’
stream of external or higher pressure gas is allowed into the suction stream. Ejectors are sometimes configured up to six
in series.

Steam jet ejectors offer a simple, reliable, low-cost way to produce vacuum. They are especially effective in the chemical
industry where an on-site supply of the high-pressure motive gas is available. Ejectors are considered an alternative to
mechanical vacuum pumps for a number of reasons:

•No source of power is required other than the motive gas;

•Because they have no moving parts, they are reliable vacuum producers;
•They are easy to install, operate and maintain.

The two major functions of ejectors are follows:

Thermocompressors
Thermocompressors are ejectors applied to recompressing spent steam and process fluids. They are used in applications
where it is desired to combine two streams of different pressures into a single stream of intermediate pressure.
Vacuum Producers: Ejector-based systems are particularly appropriate as primary vacuum producers, particularly
where motive steam is almost always available. They are applied in processes such as crystallization, deaeration, drying,
cooling, high vacuum distillation and deodorization.
Ejector systems range from the simple, single-ejector stage to very complex systems with as many as six ejectors in
combination with intercondensers.
Multistaged ejectors often promote economy by including intercondensers between some of the stages to reduce the load
to the following stages. Sometimes precondensers, booster condensers and aftercondensers are also used.

Condensers
Condensers may be barometric or surface. The size and type of condenser selected is a function of air-vapor ratios,
cooling water temperatures available, steam and water costs, and contaminants in the suction vapor.

Barometric condensers cost less to buy and install. They have many advantages. However, users should be aware that the
barometric condenser is a direct-contact design. The cooling water is mixed directly with the vapor to be condensed. If
there are any environmental considerations concerning the process fluid, it should not be mixed with cooling water.

The shell-and-tube condenser keeps cooling water separate from the process fluid. No contamination can occur; thus, the
condenser water is cooled and reused. On the other hand, the shell-and-tube design may require more maintenance due to
the possibility of scale or solids buildup on the condenser tubes.
Ejector Operation: In operation, a high-pressure motive gas enters the steam chest at low velocity and expands through
the converging-diverging nozzle. This results in a decrease in pressure and an increase in velocity. Meanwhile, the suction
fluid enters at the suction inlet. The motive fluid, which is now at high velocity, entrains the suction fluid and combines
with it.
The two fluids are then recompressed through the diffuser. Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy; thus, velocity
increases and pressure decreases. The mixture reaches its maximum velocity and lowest pressure at the Venturi throat
(Fig. 2). The fluid then is charges at an intermediate pressure, which is higher than the inlet suction fluid pressure, but
much lower than the inlet motive fluid pressure.

Ejectors, particularly when multi-stage, use large quantities of steam and water. Mechanical vacuum pumps use much less
energy than ejectors for the same service. Jet ejectors require very little attention and maintenance and are especially
valuable with corrosive gases that would damage mechanical vacuum pumps. For difficult problems, the nozzles and
diffusers can be made of corrosion-resistant material.
Three-Stage Steam Jet Ejector
LIQUID RING VACUUM PUMP
Next to ejectors, Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps are the most used vacuum-producing devices in industry. The operating
principle of the liquid ring vacuum pump is that the only moving part is an eccentrically mounted impeller within a ring of
liquid. Pump action is created by increasing and decreasing spaces between the impeller blades and liquid ring. Process
gases enter and leave these spaces (impeller buckets) through adjacent ports in sideplates next to the impeller. These single-
or two-stage pumps can achieve pressure ranges from atmospheric to 25 TORR.
Applications
Liquid ring vacuum pumps are used in the Refining Industry-for crude oil vacuum distillation, lube oil dryers, and for
asphalt production; and in the Power Industry to evacuate steam surface condensers. Other industries (food, chemicals,
pharmaceuticals, hospitals, pulp & paper, etc.) use liquid ring vacuum pumps extensively.

Liquid Ring compressor

Liquid Ring compressors utilize squirrel cage fan type impeller which is placed eccentric inside a tube (Figure 4). A
compatible liquid is introduced into the chamber along with the gas to be compressed. Because of the centrifugal force and
the shape of the internal cavity, the liquid forms an eccentric shape producing regions of changing volume. The liquid must
be separated from the compressed gas after the compression process and recirculated.