1 Introduction of General Structure

1.1 Civil Engineering

1.2 Structure Engineering
1.3 Structural Steel Application in Petrochemical Plant
and refinery

2 Definition of Structure
2.1 Structural Steel (Material Certificate)
2.2 Steel Structure Elements
2.3 Connection of Structure

3 Structure Engineering, Fabrication, Erection

3.1 Engineering Drawing
3.2 Shop Detail Drawing
3.3 Structure Erection Method and Procedure

4 General Structural Theory

4.1 Fundamentals of Structural Theory
4.2 Calculation Software
1. Civil Engineering

1.1 General Civil Engineering

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the

design, construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built
environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, dams and
buildings. Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military
engineering,] and it was defined to distinguish it from military engineering.[5]
It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental
engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation
engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal
engineering surveying, and construction engineering.

Surveying

Excavate

Piling

Reinforcements

Compact
1.1 Civil Engineering
Surveying

Surveying is the process by which a

surveyor measures certain dimensions that generally
occur on the surface of the Earth. Modern surveying
equipment, such as electronic distance measurement (EDM),
total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning, allow for
accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal,
vertical and slope distances. This information is crucial to Leveling Equipment
convert the data into a graphical representation of the Earth's
surface, in the form of a map. This information is then used
by civil engineers, contractors and even realtors to design
from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a building
or structure must be correctly sized and positioned in relation
to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures.
Civil Engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and
mapping, as well as geographic information systems.
Surveyors may also lay out the routes of railways, tramway
tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as
position other infrastructures, such as harbors, before
construction.
1.1 Civil Engineering
Excavate

Earthworks are engineering works created

through the moving of massive quantities of
soil or unformed rock. Engineers need to
concern themselves with issues of
geotechnical engineering (such as soil fluidity
and friction) and with quantity estimation to
ensure that soil volumes in the cuts match
those of the fills, while minimizing the
distance of movement. In the past, these
calculations were done by hand using a slide
rule and with methods such as Simpson's
rule; now they can be performed simply with a
computer and specialized software.
1.1 Civil Engineering
Piling
Pile foundation systems
Foundations relying on driven piles often have groups of
piles connected by a pile cap (a large concrete block into
which the heads of the piles are embedded) to distribute
loads which are larger than one pile can bear. Pile caps and
isolated piles are typically connected with grade beams to
tie the foundation elements together; lighter structural
elements bear on the grade beams while heavier elements
bear directly on the pile cap.

Micropiles
Micropiles, also called mini piles, are used for underpinning.
Micropiles are normally made of steel with diameters of 60 to
200 mm. Installation of micropiles can be achieved using
drilling, impact driving, jacking, vibrating or screwing
machinery.

Sheet piles
Sheet piling is a form of driven piling using thin interlocking sheets of
steel to obtain a continuous barrier in the ground. The main
application of steel sheet piles is in retaining walls and cofferdams
erected to enable permanent works to proceed.
1.1 Civil Engineering
Compaction
Soil compaction occurs when weight of heavy machinery compresses soil,
causing it to lose pore space.

Increasing the density of soil, along with its side effects of increased strength and decreased
permeability, is usually desirable in earthwork construction and below building foundations.
Compaction is accomplished by use of heavy equipment. In sands and gravels, the equipment
usually vibrates, to cause re-orientation of the soil particles into a denser configuration. In silts
and clays, a sheepsfoot roller is frequently used, to create small zones of intense shearing,
which drives air out of the soil.
The result of soil compaction is measured by determining the bulk density of the compacted
soil and comparing it to a maximum density, e.g. obtained from a Proctor compaction test, to
determine the relative compaction.
1.1 Civil Engineering
Reinforcement

A rebar, or reinforcing bar, is a common steel bar, and is commonly used in reinforced concrete
and reinforced masonry structures. It is usually formed from carbon steel, and is given ridges for
better frictional adhesion to the concrete. It can also be described as reinforcement or
reinforcing steel.

Concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but relatively without strength in tension.
To compensate for this imbalance in concrete's behavior, rebar is cast into it to carry the tensile
loads.
1 Introduction of General Structure

1.2 Structure Engineering

Structural engineering is a field of engineering dealing

with the mathematical analysis and design of structures
that support or resist loads. Structural engineering is
usually considered a speciality within civil engineering,
but it can also be studied in its own right.

Structural engineers are most commonly involved in the

design of buildings and large nonbuilding structures but
they can also be involved in the design of machinery,
medical equipment, vehicles or any item where structural
integrity affects the item's function or safety. Structural
engineers must ensure their designs satisfy given design
criteria, predicated on safety (e.g. structures must not
collapse without due warning) or serviceability and
performance (e.g. building sway must not cause
discomfort to the occupants).
Structural engineering theory is based upon physical laws
and empirical knowledge of the structural performance of
different geometries and materials. Structural engineering
design utilises a relatively small number of basic
structural elements to build up structural systems than
can be very complete. Structural engineers are
responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds,
structural elements and materials to achieve these goals.
1 Introduction of General Structure
1.2 Structure Engineering
Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and
analysis. Entry-level structural engineers may design the individual
structural elements of a structure, for example the beams, column,
and floor of a building. More experienced engineers would be
responsible for the structural design and integrity of an entire
system, such as a building.
Structural engineers often specialize in particular fields, such as
bridge engineering, building engineering, pipeline engineering,
industrial structures or special structures such as vehicles or Millennium Dome
aircraft.
The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant
understanding of both static and dynamic loading, and the
structures that are available to reist them. The complexity of
modern structures often requires a great deal of creativity from
the engineer in order to ensure the structures support and resist
the loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will
typically have a four or five year undergrad degree, followed by
a minimium of three years of professional practice before being
considered fully qualified.[5]
Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different
learned societies and regulatory bodie around the world (for
example, the Institution of Structural Engineers in the UK)[5].
Depending on the degree course they have studied and/or the
jurisdiction they are seeking licensure in, they may be accredited Sydney Opera House
(or licensed) as just structural engineers, or as civil engineers, or
as both civil and structural engineers.
1 Introduction of General Structure
1.3 Structural Steel Application in Petrochemical Plant and Refinery

a. Equipment Support
b. Piping Support, Pipe Rack
c. Access Platform
d. Temporary support for equipment maintenance
1 Introduction of General Structure
1.3 Structural Steel Application in Petrochemical Plant and Refinery
a. Equipment Support
b. Piping Support, Pipe Rack
c. Access Platform
d. Temporary support for equipment maintenance
1 Introduction of General Structure
1.3 Structural Steel Application in Petrochemical Plant and Refinery
a. Equipment Support
b. Piping Support, Pipe Rack
c. Access Platform
d. Temporary support for equipment maintenance
2 Definition Structure
2.1 Structural Steel
Structural steel is steel construction material, a profile, formed with a specific shape or
cross section and certain standards of chemical composition and strength. Structural
steel shape, size, composition, strength, storage, etc, is regulated in most industrialised
countries.
Structural steel members, such as I-beams, have large moments of inertia, which allow
them to be very stiff in respect to their cross-sectional area.

In most developed countries, the shapes available are set out in published standards,
although a number of specialist and proprietary cross sections are also available.
I-beam (I-shaped cross-section - in Britain these include Universal Beams (UB) and Universal
Columns (UC); in Europe it includes the IPE, HE, HL, HD and other sections; in the US it
includes Wide Flange (WF) and H sections)
Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions)
HSS-Shape (Hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural hollow section) and
including square, rectangular, circular (pipe) and elliptical cross-sections)
Angle (L-shaped cross-section)
Channel (C-shaped cross-section)
Tee (T-shaped cross-section)
Bar, a piece of metal, rectangular cross sectioned (flat) and long, but not so wide so as to be
called a sheet.
Rod, a round or square and long piece of metal or wood, see also rebar and dowel.
Plate, sheet metal thicker than 6 mm or 1/4 in.
Open web steel joist
While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made by welding together flat
or bent plates (for example, the largest circular hollow sections are made from flat plate bent
into a circle and seam-welded).
2 Definition Structure
2.1 Structural Steel

Standard structural steels (USA)

Steels used for building construction in the US use standard alloys identified and
specified by ASTM International. These steels have an alloy identification beginning
with A and then two, three, or four numbers. The four-number AISI steel grades
commonly used for mechanical engineering, machines, and vehicles are a completely
different specification series.
The standard commonly used structural steels are: [1]
Carbon steels
A36 - structural shapes and plate
A53 - structural pipe and tubing
A500 - structural pipe and tubing
A501 - structural pipe and tubing
- structural shapes and plate
High strength low alloy steels
- structural shapes and plates
- structural shapes and plates
- structural pipe and tubing
- W shapes beams only
Corrosion resistant high strength low alloy steels
A242 - structural shapes and plates
A588 - structural shapes and plates
Quenched and tempered alloy steels
A514 - structural shapes and plates
A517 - boilers and pressure vessels
2 Definition Structure
2.1 Structural Steel

Standard structural steels (Europe)

Most steels used throughout Europe are specified to comply with the European standard EN 10025.
However, many national standards also remain in force.
Typical grades are described as 'S275J2' or 'S355K2W'. In these examples, 'S' denotes structural
rather than engineering steel; 275 or 355 denotes the yield strength in newtons per square
millimetre or the equivalent megapascals; J2 or K2 denotes the materials toughness by reference to
Charpy impact test values; and the 'W' denotes weathering steel. Further letters can be used to
designate normalised steel ('N' or 'NL'); quenched and tempered steel ('Q' or 'QL'); and
thermomechanically rolled steel ('M' or 'ML').
The normal yield strength grades available are 195, 235, 275, 355, 420, and 460, although some
grades are more commonly used than others e.g. in the UK, almost all structural steel is grades
S275 and S355. Higher grades are available in quenched and tempered material (500, 550, 620,
690, 890 and 960 - although grades above 690 receive little if any use in construction at present).

Standard structural steels (Japanese)

G3101, SS34, 41, 50, 55
G3106, SM41A,B,C SM50A,B,C
2 Definition Structure
2.2 Structural Element

Structural elements

Any structure is essentially made up of only a small number of different types of elements:
•Columns
•Beams
•Plates
Many of these elements can be classified according to form (straight,plane / curve) and
dimensionality (one-dimensional / two-dimensional):
2 Definition Structure
2.2 Structural Element

Columns
Columns are elements that carry only axial force - either tension or
compression - or both axial force and bending (which is technically called a
beam-column but practically, just a column). The design of a column must
check the axial capacity of the element, and the buckling capacity.
The buckling capacity is the capacity of the element to withstand the
propensity to buckle. Its capacity depends upon its geometry, material, and
the effective length of the column, which depends upon the restraint
conditions at the top and bottom of the column. The effective length is K * l
where l is the real length of the column.
The capacity of a column to carry axial load depends on the degree of
bending it is subjected to, and vice versa. This is represented on an
interaction chart and is a complex non-linear relationship.

A column in structural engineering is a vertical structural element that

transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to
other structural elements below. Other compression members are often
termed columns because of the similar stress conditions. Columns are
frequently used to support beams or arches on which the upper parts of
walls or ceilings rest. In architecture "column" refers to such a structural
element that also has certain proportional and decorative features. A
column might not support any major structure but be a decorative or
triumphant feature with e.g. a statue on top.
2 Definition Structure
2.2 Structural Element

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending.
The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own
weight and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.
Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads
(i.e., loads due to an earthquake or wind). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns,
walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members. In
Light frame construction the joists rest on the beam.
Beams are characterized by their profile (the shape of their cross-section), their length, and their
material. In contemporary construction, beams are typically made of steel, reinforced concrete, or
wood. One of the most common types of steel beam is the I-beam or wide-flange beam (also
known as a "universal beam" or, for stouter sections, a "universal column"). This is commonly used
in steel-frame buildings and bridges. Other common beam profiles are the C-channel, the hollow
structural section beam, the pipe, and the angle.
2 Definition Structure
2.2 Structural Element

Struts and ties (Truss)

A truss is a structure comprising two types of structural element, ie struts

and ties. A strut is a relatively lightweight column and a tie is a slender
element designed to withstand tension forces. In a pin-jointed truss (where
all joints are essentially hinges), the individual elements of a truss
theoretically carry only axial load. From experiments it can be shown that
even trusses with rigid joints will behave as though the joints are pinned.
Trusses are usually utilised to span large distances, where it would be
uneconomical and unattractive to use solid beams.

Truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units

constructed with straight slender members whose ends are connected
at joints referred to as nodes. External forces and reactions to those
forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in
the members which are either tensile or compressive forces.
A planar truss is one where all the members and nodes lie within a two
dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and nodes
extending into three dimensions.
2 Definition of Structure
2.3 Connection of Structure
Gusset plates are frequently used to fuse any number
of load-bearing columns with beams or truss members
together. The members can be bolted, riveted or
welded to the gusset plate.

Simple (Shear) Connections

2 Definition of Structure Splice
2.3 Connection of Structure Welded Splice
Allocation of
Moment Connections bending
Welded Beam-Column moment
Beam on one or both sides of column. With or between
without stiffeners or column web doubler plate. flanges and
web
determined by
analysis
method, either
elastic, plastic,
or simplified.

Bolted Splice
Bolted Moment End Plate Allocation of
Beam on one or both sides of column. With or bending
without stiffeners or column web doubler moment
between
flanges and
web
determined by
analysis
method, either
elastic, plastic,
or simplified.
2 Definition of Structure
2.3 Connection of Structure

Pinned connection Bracing Connections

Single Angle, Cleat on Short Leg

Moment Base Plate

Back-to-Back Double Angles,

2 Definition of Structure
2.3 Connection of Structure
3 Structure Engineering, Fabrication, Erection
3.1 Engineering Drawing

An engineering drawing is a type of drawing that is technical in

nature, used to fully and clearly define requirements for
engineered items, and is usually created in accordance with
standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature,
interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles),
size, etc. Its purpose is to accurately and unambiguously
capture all the geometric features of a product or a component.
The end goal of an engineering drawing is to convey all the
required information that will allow a manufacturer to produce
that component.

A variety of line styles graphically represent physical

objects. Types of lines include the following:
visible – are continuous lines used to depict edges directly
visible from a particular angle.
hidden – are short-dashed lines that may be used to
represent edges that are not directly visible.
center – are alternately long- and short-dashed lines that
may be used to represent the axes of circular features.
cutting plane – are thin, medium-dashed lines, or thick
alternately long- and double short-dashed that may be used
to define sections for section views.
section – are thin lines in a pattern (pattern determined by
the material being "cut" or "sectioned") used to indicate
surfaces in section views resulting from "cutting." Section
lines are commonly referred to as "cross-hatching."
3 Structure Engineering, Fabrication, Erection
3.1 Engineering Drawing

ISO A Drawing Sizes (mm)

A4 210 X 297
A3 297 X 420
A2 420 X 594
A1 594 X 841
A0 841 X 1189

U.S. Customary Drawing Sizes

A 8.5" X 11"
B 11" X 17"
C 17" X 22"
D 22" X 34"
3 Structure Engineering, Fabrication, Erection
3.1 Engineering Drawing
3 Structure Engineering, Fabrication, Erection
3.1 Engineering Drawing
3 Structure Engineering, Fabrication, Erection
3.2 Shop Detail Drawing

A shop drawing is a drawing or set of drawings produced by the contractor,

supplier, manufacturer, subcontractor, or fabricator.[1] Shop drawings are typically
required for pre-fabricated components. Examples of these include: elevators,
structural steel, trusses, pre-cast, windows, appliances, cabinets, air handling
units,and millwork. Also critical are the installation and coordination shop drawings
of the MEP trades of Divisions 15 and 16 such as sheet metal ductwork, piping,
plumbing, fire protection, and electrical. Shop drawings are not produced by
architects and engineers under their contract with the owner. The shop drawing is
the manufacturer’s or the contractor’s drawn version of information shown in the
construction documents.[1] The shop drawing normally shows more detail than the
construction documents. It is drawn to explain the fabrication and/or installation of
the items to the manufacturer’s production crew or contractor's installation crews.
The style of the shop drawing is usually very different from that of the architect’s
drawing. The shop drawing’s primary emphasis is on the particular product or
installation and excludes notation concerning other products and installations,
unless integration with the subject product is necessary.[1]

Development , Cutting Plan, Details of structural steel connection

3 Structure Engineering, Fabrication, Erection
3.3 Structure Erection Method and Procedure

The determination of how to erect a structure depends on many variables that must be studied by the erection
engineer long before steel begins to arrive at the ejection site.
It is normal and prudent to have this erection planning developed on drawings and in written procedures.
Such documents outline the equipment to be used, methods of supporting the equipment, conditions for use
of equipment, and sequence of erection.
4 General Structural Theory
4.1 Fundamentals of Structural Theory

Structural theory is based primarily on the following set of laws and properties. These principles
often provide sufficient relation sufficient relations for analysis of structures.

Law of mechanics. These consist of the rules for static equilibrium and dynamic behavior
Properties of materials. The material used in a structure has a significant influence on its behavior
Laws of deformation. These require that structure geometry and any incurred deformation be compatible.

Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of loads, physics and materials to understand
and predict how structures support and resist self-weight and imposed loads. To apply the knowledge
successfully a structural engineer will need a detailed knowledge of mathematics and of relevant
empirical and theoretical design codes.

The criteria which govern the design of a structure are either serviceability (criteria which define
whether the structure is able to adequately fulfill its function) or strength (criteria which define whether
a structure is able to safely support and resist its design loads). A structural engineer designs a structure
to have sufficient strength and stiffness to meet these criteria.
Loads imposed on structures are supported by means of forces transmitted through structural elements.
These forces can manifest themselves as:
tension (axial force)
compression (axial force)
shear
bending, or flexure (a bending moment is a force multiplied by a distance, or lever arm, hence
producing a turning effect or torque)
4 General Structural Theory
4.1 Fundamentals of Structural Theory

4.1.1 Principles of forces

Created by the action of one body an another, force is a vector, consisting of magnitude and direction.
In addition to these values, point of action or line of action is needed to determine the effect of a force
on a structural system.
Force may be concentrated or distributed.

F(n, kg),

4.1.2 Moments of forces

A force acting on a body may have a tendency to rotate it. The measure of this tendency is the moment
of the force about the axis of rotation. The moment of a force about a specific point equals the product
of the magnitude of the force and the normal distance between the point and the line of action of the force.
Moment is a vector.
M=FxL

Aristotle Galileo Newton

4 General Structural Theory
4.1 Fundamentals of Structural Theory

4.1.3 Equations of equilibrium

When a body is in static equilibrium, no translation or rotation occurs in any direction (neglecting cases
of constant velocity). Since there is no translation, the sum of the forces acting on the body must be zero.
Since there is no rotation, the sum of the moments about any point must be zero.
ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0 ΣM = 0

The most important natural laws for structural engineering are Newton's Laws of Motion
Newton's first law states that every body perseveres in its state of being at rest or of moving uniformly
straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change its state by force impressed.
Newton's second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the
resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction. Mathematically, F=ma (force = mass x
acceleration).
Newton's third law states that all forces occur in pairs, and these two forces are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.
With these laws it is possible to understand the forces on a structure and how that structure will resist
them. The Third Law requires that for a structure to be stable all the internal and external forces must be
in equilibrium. This means that the sum of all internal and external forces on a free-body diagram must
be zero
4 General Structural Theory
4.1 Fundamentals of Structural Theory

4.1.4 Structural loads & Load cases

Some Structural loads on structures can be classified as live (imposed) loads, dead loads,
earthquake (seismic) loads, wind loads, soil pressure loads, fluid pressure loads, impact loads, and
vibratory loads. Live loads are transitory or temporary loads, and are relatively unpredictable in
magnitude. They may include the weight of a building's occupants and furniture, and temporary
loads the structure is subjected to during construction. Dead loads are permanent, and may include
the weight of the structure itself and all major permanent components. Dead load may also include
the weight of the structure itself supported in a way it wouldn't normally be supported, for example
during construction

A load case is a combination of different types of loads with safety factors applied to them. A structure is
checked for strength and serviceability against all the load cases it is likely to experience during its lifetime.
Typical load cases for design for strength (ultimate load cases; ULS) are:
1.4 x Dead Load + 1.6 x Live Load
1.2 x Dead Load + 1.2 x Live Load + 1.2 x Wind Load

Design code : BS5950-1:2000

4 General Structural Theory
4.1 Fundamentals of Structural Theory
4.1.5 Strength, Stress

Strength
Strength depends upon material properties. The strength of a material depends on its capacity to withstand axial
stress, shear stress, bending, and torsion. The strength of a material is measured in force per unit area (newtons
per square millimetre or N/mm², or the equivalent megapascals or MPa in the SI system and oftentimes pounds
per square inch psi in the United States Custumary Units system).
A structure fails the strength criterion when the stress (force divided by area of material) induced by the loading
is greater than the capacity of the structural material to resist the load without breaking, or when the strain
(percentage extension) is so great that the element no longer fulfills its function (yield).

Stress is a measure of the average amount of force exerted per unit area. It is a measure of the intensity of the
total internal forces acting within a body across imaginary internal surfaces, as a reaction to external applied
forces and body forces. It was introduced into the theory of elasticity by Cauchy around 1822. Stress is a
concept that is based on the concept of continuum. In general, stress is expressed as where is the average
stress, also called engineering or nominal stress, and is the force acting over the area .

The SI unit for stress is the pascal (symbol Pa), which is a shorthand name for one newton (Force) per
square metre (Unit Area). The unit for stress is the same as that of pressure, which is also a measure of
4 General Structural Theory
4.1 Fundamentals of Structural Theory
4.1.5 Strain,

Strain is the geometrical measure of deformation representing the relative displacement between particles
in the material body, i.e. a measure of how much a given displacement differs locally from a rigid-body
displacement (Jaboc Lubliner). Strain defines the amount of stretch or compression along a material line
elements or fibers, i.e. normal strain, and the amount of distortion associated with the sliding of plane
layers over each other, i.e. shear strain, within a deforming body (David Rees). Strain is a dimensionless
quantity, which can be expressed as a decimal fraction, a percentage or in parts-per notation.

If there is an increase in length of the material line, the normal strain is called tensile strain, otherwise,
if there is reduction or compression in the length of the material line, it is called compressive strain.

A change in the configuration of a continuum body results in a displacement. The displacement of a body
has two components: a rigid-body displacement and a deformation. A rigid-body displacement consist of
a simultaneous translation and rotation of the body without changing its shape or size. Deformation
implies the change in shape and/or size of the body from an initial or undeformed configuration to a
current or deformed configuration .
4 General Structural Theory
4.1 Fundamentals of Structural Theory

4.1.6 Stress & strain relationships

During testing of a material sample, the stress–strain curve is a graphical representation of the relationship
between stress, derived from measuring the load applied on the sample, and strain, derived from measuring
the deformation of the sample, i.e. elongation, compression, or distortion. The nature of the curve varies from
material to material. The following diagrams illustrate the stress–strain behaviour of typical materials in
terms of the engineering stress and engineering strain where the stress and strain are calculated based on the
original dimensions of the sample and not the instantaneous values.

Steel generally exhibits a very linear stress–strain σ = Εε

relationship up to a well defined yield point (figure 1). The
linear portion of the curve is the elastic region and the slope
is the modulus of elasticity or Young's Modulus. After the
yield point the curve typically decreases slightly due to
dislocations escaping from Cottrell atmospheres. As
deformation continues the stress increases due to strain
hardening until it reaches the ultimate strength. Until this
point the cross-sectional area decreases uniformly due to
Poisson contractions.
However, beyond this point a neck forms where the local
cross-sectional area decreases more quickly than the rest of
the sample resulting in an increase in the true stress. On an
engineering stress–strain curve this is seen as a decrease in
the stress. Conversely, if the curve is plotted in terms of true
stress and true strain the stress will continue to rise until
failure. Eventually the neck becomes unstable and the
specimen ruptures (fractures).
4 General Structural Theory
4.2 Calculation Software

STAAD.Pro is an analysis and design software package for structural engineering. This manual is intended to
guide users who are new to this software as well as experienced users who want specific information on the
basics of using the program.
4 General Structural Theory
4.2 Calculation Software

STAAD.Pro is a general purpose program for performing the analysis and design of a wide variety of types of
structures. The basic three activities which are to be carried out to achieve that goal - a) model generation b)
the calculations to obtain the analytical results c) result verification - are all facilitated by tools contained in
the program's graphical environment. This manual contains four sample tutorials which guide the user
through those 3 activities.

The first of those tutorials demonstrates these processes using a simple two-dimensional steel portal frame. It
is a good starting point for learning the program. If you are unfamiliar with STAAD.Pro, you will greatly
benefit by going through this tutorial first.

For the second tutorial, we have chosen a reinforced concrete frame. We generate the model, perform the
analysis, and design the concrete beams and columns. It contains extensive details on the various facilities
available for visualization and verification of results.

The modelling and analysis of a slab is demonstrated in the third tutorial. Slabs, and other surface entities like
walls are modelled using plate elements. Large surface entities may have to be defined using several elements
and this sometimes requires a tool called a mesh generator. This tutorial shows the simple techniques as well
as the mesh generation method for generating the finite element model of the slab. It also explains the
methods by which one can check the results for plate elements.

A tutorial which demonstrates the inter-operability features between STAAD.Pro and STAAD.etc. is
presented in the fourth tutorial. STAAD.etc is a set of modules which can be used to perform component
designs such as for a rectangular footing, base plate, cantilever retaining wall, moment connection, bolt
group, etc. Users who have purchased STAAD.etc in addition to STAAD.Pro may go through this tutorial to
familiarize themselves with the process of utilizing STAAD.etc to perform secondary analysis and design
tasks on a structure for which the primary analysis and design is done using STAAD.Pro
4 General Structural Theory
4.2 Calculation Software
Input and modeling
4 General Structural Theory
4.2 Calculation Software
Output Report
4 General Structural Theory
4.2 Calculation Software
Report