Chapter 8 Probability Adobe Acrobat 7.

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Distributions
8.1 Random variables
8.2 Probability distributions
8.3 Binomial distribution
8.4 Hypergeometric distribution
8.5 Poisson distribution
8.7 The mean of a probability distribution
8.8 Standard deviation of a probability
distribution
 8.1 Random variables
A random variable is some numerical
outcomes of a random process

Toss a coin 10 times

X=# of heads
Toss a coin until a head
X=# of tosses needed
More random variables

Toss a die
X=points showing
Plant 100 seeds of pumpkins
X=% germinating
Test a light bulb
X=lifetime of bulb
Test 20 light bulbs
X=average lifetime of bulbs
Types of random variables

Discrete or Countable valued

Counts, finite-possible values

Continuous

Lifetimes, time
8.2 Probability distributions
For a discrete random variable, the
probability of for each outcome x to
occur, denoted by f(x), with properties

0 f(x) 1, f(x)=1
Example 8.1

Roll a die, X=# showing

x 1 2 3 4 5 6
f(x) 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6
 Example 8.2

Toss a coin twice. X=# of heads

x P(x)
0 ¼ P(TT)=P(T)*P(T)=1/2*1/2=1/4
1 ½ P(TH or HT)=P(TH)+P(HT)=1/2*1/2+1/2*1/2=1/2
2 ¼ P (HH)=P(H)*P(H)=1/2*1/2=1/4
Example 8.3

Pick up 2 cards. X=# of aces

x P(x)
 Probability distribution
By probability distribution, we mean a
correspondence that assigns
probabilities to the values of a random
variable.
 Exercise
Check whether the correspondence given by
x3
f ( x)  , for x=1, 2, and 3
15
can serve as the probability distribution of some
random variable.

Hint:
The values of a probability distribution must be
numbers on the interval from 0 to 1.
The sum of all the values of a probability
distribution must be equal to 1.
 solution
Substituting x=1, 2, and 3 into f(x)
1 3 4 5 6
f (1)   , f (2)  , f (3) 
15 15 15 15
They are all between 0 and 1. The sum is
4 5 6
  1
15 15 15

So it can serve as the probability distribution of

some random variable.
 Exercise
Verify that for the number of heads
obtained in four flips of a balanced coin
the probability distribution is given by
4
 x
f ( x )    , for x=0, 1, 2, 3, and 4
16
 8.3 Binomial distribution
In many applied problems, we are
interested in the probability that an
event will occur x times out of n.
 Roll a die 3 times. X=# of sixes.
S=a six, N=not a six
No six: (x=0)
NNN  (5/6)(5/6)(5/6)
One six: (x=1)
NNS  (5/6)(5/6)(1/6)
NSN  same
SNN  same
Two sixes: (x=2)
NSS  (5/6)(1/6)(1/6)
SNS  same
SSN  same
Three sixes: (x=3)
SSS (1/6)(1/6)(1/6)
Binomial distribution
x f(x)
0 (5/6)3
1 3(1/6)(5/6)2
2 3(1/6)2(5/6)
3 (1/6)3
3 x
 3  1   5 
x

f ( x)      
 x  6   6 
Toss a die 5 times. X=# of sixes.Find P(X=2)
S=six N=not a six
SSNNN 1/6*1/6*5/6*5/6*5/6=(1/6)2(5/6)3
SNSNN 1/6*5/6*1/6*5/6*5/6=(1/6)2(5/6)3
SNNSN 1/6*5/6*5/6*1/6*5/6=(1/6)2(5/6)3
SNNNS
NSSNN etc. 10 ways to choose 2 of 5 places for S.
NSNSN __ __ __ __ __
NSNNs
 5 5! 5! 5 * 4 * 3!
 2   2!(5  2)!  2!3!  2 *1* 3!  10
 

NNSSN
2 3
NNSNS 1 5
P( x  2)  10 *    
NNNSS 6 6
[1-P(S)]5 - # of S
[P(S)]# of S
In general: n independent trials
p probability of a success
x=# of successes
SSNN…S px(1-p)n-x
SNSN…N
n
  ways to choose x places for s,
 x
n x n x
f ( x)    p (1  p)
 x
Roll a die 20 times. X=# of 6’s,
n=20, p=1/6 20  x
 20   1   5 
x

f ( x)       
 x  6   6 
  1   5 
4 16
20
p( x  4)       
 4  6   6 

Flip a fair coin 10 times. X=# of heads

10 x
10  1   1  10  1 
x 10

f ( x)          
 x  2   2   x  2 
More example

Pumpkin seeds germinate with

probability 0.93. Plant n=50 seeds
X= # of seeds germinating
 50 
0.93 0.07 
50 x
f ( x)  
x 
x

 

 50 
P( X  48)   0.93 0.07 
 48 
48 2

 
To find binomial probabilities:
Direct substitution. (can be hard if n is
large)
Use approximation (may be introduced
later depending on time)
Computer software (most common
source)
Binomial table (Table V in book)
 Adobe Acrobat 7.0
Document

How to use Table V

Example: The probability that a lunar eclipse
will be obscured by clouds at an observatory
near Buffalo, New York, is 0.60. use table V
to find the probabilities that at most three of
8 lunar eclipses will be obscured by clouds at
that location.
for n=8, p=0.6
p( x  3)  p( x  0)  p( x  1)  p( x  2)  p( x  3)
 0.001  0.008  0.041  0.124  0.174
 Exercise
In a certain city, medical expenses are
given as the reason for 75% of all
personal bankruptcies. Use the formula
for the binomial distribution to calculate
the probability that medical expenses
will be given as the reason for two of
the next three personal bankruptcies
filed in that city.
8.4 Hypergeometric distribution
Sampling with replacement
If we sample with replacement and the
trials are all independent, the binomial
distribution applies.
Sampling without replacement
If we sample without replacement, a
different probability distribution applies.
 Example
Pick up n balls from a box without replacement.
The box contains a white balls and b black balls

X=# of white balls picked

n picked
a successes X= # of successes
b non-successes
 In the box: a successes, b non-successes
The probability of getting x successes (white
balls):
# of ways to pick n balls with x successes
p( x ) 
total # of ways to pick n balls
# of ways to pick x successes
=(# of ways to choose x successies)*(# of ways to choose n-x non-successes)
 a  b 
=   
 
x n  x   a  b 
 x  n  x 
f ( x )     , x  0,1,2,..., a
 a  b
n 
 
Example
52 cards. Pick n=5.
X=# of aces,
then a=4, b=48

 4  48 

 2
3  
P ( X  2)    
 52 

5  
 
Example
A box has 100 batteries.
a=98 good ones
b= 2 bad ones
n=10
X=# of good ones
 98  2 

8  
 2
P ( X  8)    
100 

10  
 
Continued
P(at least 1 bad one)
=1-P(all good)
 1  P( X  10)
 98   2 
 10   0 
 1   
 100 
 10 
 
98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89
 1
100 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91
 8.5 Poisson distribution
Events happen independently in time or
space with, on average, λ events per
unit time or space.
Radioactive decay
λ=2 particles per minute
Lightening strikes
λ=0.01 strikes per acre
 Poisson probabilities
Under perfectly random occurrences it
can be shown that mathematically
 x e 
f ( x)  , x=0, 1, 2, ...
x!
Radioactive decay
x=# of particles/min
λ=2 particles per minutes

23 e2
P( x  3)  , x=0, 1, 2, ...
3!
Radioactive decay
X=# of particles/hour
λ =2 particles/min * 60min/hour=120 particles/hr

125 120
120 e
P( x  125)  , x=0, 1, 2, ...
125!
 exercise
A mailroom clerk is supposed to send 6
of 15 packages to Europe by airmail,
but he gets them all mixed up and
randomly puts airmail postage on 6 of
the packages. What is the probability
that only three of the packages that are
supposed to go by air get airmail
postage?
 exercise
Among an ambulance service’s 16
ambulances, five emit excessive
amounts of pollutants. If eight of the
ambulances are randomly picked for
inspection, what is the probability that
this sample will include at least three of
the ambulances that emit excessive
amounts of pollutants?
 Exercise
The number of monthly breakdowns of the
kind of computer used by an office is a
random variable having the Poisson
distribution with λ=1.6. Find the probabilities
that this kind of computer will function for a
month
Without a breakdown;
With one breakdown;
With two breakdowns.
8.7 The mean of a probability distribution
X=# of 6’s in 3 tosses of a die
x f(x)
0 (5/6)3
1 3(1/6)(5/6)2
2 3(1/6)2(5/6)
3 (1/6)3

Expected long run average of X?

 Just like in section 7.1, the average or
mean value of x in the long run over
repeated experiments is the weighted
average of the possible x values, weighted
by their probabilities of occurrence.
3 x
  1   5 
x
3 3
E( X )  X   x      
x 0  x   6   6 
3 2 2 3
5  1  5  1 5 1
 0 *    1*3     2 *3      3*    1/ 2
6  6  6  6 6 6
 In general
mean: x  E( x)   xf ( x)

X=# showing on a die

1 1 1 1 1 1

E ( x )  1   2    3    4    5    6    3.5
6 6 6 6 6 6
Simulation

Simulation: toss a coin

n=10, 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1, average=0.6

n 100 1,000 10,000

average 0.55 0.509 0.495
The population is all possible outcomes
of the experiment (tossing a die).

Box of equal number of Population mean=3.5

1’s 2’s 3’s
4’s 5’s 6’s

E(X)=(1)(1/6)+(2)(1/6)+(3)(1/6)+
(4)(1/6)+(5)(1/6)+(6)(1/6)
=3.5
 X=# of heads in 2 coin tosses
x 0 1 2
P(x) ¼ ½ ¼

Box of 0’s, 1’s and 2’s

with twice as many 1’s as 0’s or 2’s.)

Population Mean=1
  is the center of gravity of the probability
distribution.
For example,
• 3 white balls, 2 red balls
• Pick 2 without replacement
X=# of white ones
x P(x)
0 P(RR)=2/5*1/4=2/20=0.1
1 P(RW U WR)=P(RW)+P(WR)
=2/5*3/4+3/5*2/4=0.6
2 P(WW)=3/5*2/4=6/20=0.3
=E(X)=(0)(0.1)+(1)(0.6)+(2)(0.3)=1.2
0.1 0.6 0.3
0 1 2

The mean of a probability distribution
Binomial distribution
n= # of trials,
p=probability of success on each trial
X=# of successes

n x
E ( x )     x   p (1  p )  np
n x

 x
Toss a die n=60 times, X=# of 6’s
known that p=1/6
μ=μX =E(X)=np=(60)(1/6)=10

We expect to get 10 6’s.

Hypergeometric Distribution

a – successes
b – non-successes
pick n balls without replacement
X=# of successes
 a  b   a  b
E( x)     x      n 
 x  n  x   
a
  n
ab
 Example
50 balls
20 red
30 blue
N=10 chosen without replacement
X=# of red
20
E ( x)    10*( )  10*0.4  4
50
Since 40% of the balls in our box are red, we
expect on average 40% of the chosen balls to
be red. 40% of 10=4.
 Exercise
Among twelve school buses, five have
worn brakes. If six of these buses are
randomly picked for inspection, how
many of them can be expected to have
worn brakes?
 Exercise
If 80% of certain videocassette
recorders will function successfully
through the 90-day warranty period,
find the mean of the number of these
recorders, among 10 randomly selected,
that will function successfully through
the 90-day warranty period.
8.8 Standard Deviation of a
Probability Distribution
Variance:
σ2=weighted average of (X-μ)2
by the probability of each possible
x value
=  (x- μ)2f(x)
Standard deviation:
  ( x   ) 2
f ( x)
Example 8.8

Toss a coin n=2 times. X=# of heads

μ=np=(2)(½)=1
x (x-μ)2 f(x) (x-)2f(x)
0 1 ¼ ¼
1 0 ½ 0
2 1 ¼ ¼
________________________
½ = σ2
σ=0.707
Variance for Binomial distribution
σ2=np(1-p)
where n is # of trials and p is probability
of a success.
From the previous example, n=2, p=0.5
Then
σ2=np(1-p)=2*0.5*(1-0.5)=0.5
Variance for Hypergeometric
distributions

Hypergeometric:
a b abn
  n
2
 
a  b a  b a  b 1
 np(1  p )  finite population correction factor
 Example
In a federal prison, 120 of the 300
inmates are serving times for drug-
related offenses. If eight of them are to
be chosen at random to appear before
a legislative committee, what is the
probability that three of the eight will
be serving time for drug-related
offenses? What is the mean and
standard deviation of the distribution?
Alternative formula

σ2=∑x2f(x)–μ2

Example: X binomial n=2, p=0.5

x 0 1 2
f(x) 0.25 0.50 0.25
Get σ2 from one of the 3 methods
1. Definition for variance
2. Formula for binomial distribution
3. Alternative formula
Difference between Binomial and
Hypergeometric distributions
A box contains 3 white balls & 2 red balls
1. Pick up 2 without replacement
X=# of white balls
2. Pick up 2 with replacement
Y=# of white balls

Distributions for X & Y?

Means and variances?