AC CIRCUITS

AC wave forms

AC = Alternating Current
peak

T
peak-to-peak

Peak value = amplitude

T = period [s]
f = 1/T frequency [Hz]
ω = 2πf angular frequency [rad/s]

Instantaneous value: i(t) = Im sin(ωt + φ)

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 1/34

 AC CIRCUITS
Sinus wave
Average value: Iav = (1/T)∫i(t)dt = 0

Root Mean Squared value: I = √(1/T)∫i2(t)dt = Im/√2 = 0.707·Im

Instantaneous value: i(t) = √2·I·sin(ωt + φ)

325 V
I = RMS value
√2I = peak value (amplitude) 230 V
ω = 2πf = angular frequency [rad/s]
f = frequency [Hz] 0
10
T = 1/f = period [s] 20 t
[ms]
φ = phase [rad]
u(t) = 325 sin(314t)
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 2/34
 AC CIRCUITS
Phase difference

2π+φ u(t) = Um sin(ωt)

ωt
i(t) = Im sin(ωt - φ)
φ=π/6
φ = phase difference
(phase shift)
The current cross the horizontal reference axis reaching
its peak and zero values after the voltage.
The two waveforms are π/6 (30o) “out-of phase”.
The current lags the voltage by angle φ.
The voltage leads the current by angle φ.
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 3/34
 AC CIRCUITS
Complex quantities. Phasor diagram
A Phasor Diagram can be used to represent two or more
stationary sinusoidal quantities: voltage, current, or some
other alternating quantity of the same frequency.
√2·A sin(ωt + φ) → A = A ejφ (j = √-1)
imaginary axis
A ejφ = cosφ + j sinφ
Asinφ

φ A = A (cosφ + j sinφ)
Acosφ real axis A = A cosφ + j A sinφ

U U = U·ej0 I =I·e-jπ/6
φ=- π/6 reference the current phasor lags behind
I axis the voltage phasor

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 4/34

 AC CIRCUITS
Phasor addition
u1(t) = √2U1 sin(314t + φ1)
u2(t) = √2U2 sin(314t + φ2)
U = U 1 + U2
u(t) = u1(t) + u2(t) U2 = U12+U22+2U1U2cos(φ1-φ2)
u (t) = √2U sin(314t + φ)
tan φ = (U1sinφ1+ U2sinφ2)/(U1cosφ1+ U2cosφ2)
u1(t) = √2·20 sin(314t + π/3) V
u2(t) = √2·30 sin(314t) V
u(t) = u1(t) + u2(t) = √2U sin(314t + φ)
U = ?, φ = ?
U = 43.6 V, φ = 23.4 °

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 5/34

 AC CIRCUITS
Impedance, Phase angle, Resistance, Reactance

i(t) Impedance
Z, φ Z = U/I [Ω]
u(t)
~ Phase angle
φ = (φu - φi) [rad]
i(t) = √2(U/Z) sin(ωt + φu - φ)
u(t) = √2U sin(ωt + φu)
i(t) = √2I sin(ωt + φi) u(t) = √2·100 sin(314t + π/3)
i(t) = √2·2 sin(314t + π/6)
Z=?
φ=?

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 6/34

 AC CIRCUITS
Impedance, Phase angle, Resistance, Reactance

Resistance
i(t)
R = Z cosφ [Ω]
Z, φ
Reactance
u(t) ~ R, X X = Z sinφ [Ω]
φ = (φu - φi) [rad]
u(t) = √2U sin(ωt + φu) Z = √(R2 + X2)
tan φ = X/R
i(t) = √2I sin(ωt + φi)
u(t) = √2·100 sin(314t + π/3)
i(t) = √2·2 sin(314t + π/6)
R=?
X=?
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 7/34
 AC CIRCUITS
Complex Impedance

i(t) Z = Uejφu/Iejφi
Z, φ Z = (U/I)ej(φu-φi)
u(t) ~ R, X Z = Zejφ
Z Z = Z(cos φ + j sin φ)
Z=R+jX
u(t) = √2U sin(ωt + φu)
j
i(t) = √2I sin(ωt + φi)
Z

Complex Impedance φ
X

Z = U/I R 1

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 8/34

 AC CIRCUITS
Power in AC circuits

Instantaneous power
i(t)
p(t) = u(t)·i(t)
p(t) = 2UI sin(ωt + φu)·
u(t)
~ sin(ωt + φi)

u(t) = √2U sin(ωt + φu)

i(t) = √2I sin(ωt + φi)

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 9/34

 AC CIRCUITS
Power in AC circuits

True power Apparent power Reactive power

P = (1/T)∫p(t)dt S = U I [VA] Q = UI sinφ
[VAr]
P = UI cosφ [W] U=ZI
φ = φu - φi S = Z I2 U=ZI
Q = Z I2 sinφ
U=ZI Power factor Q = X I2
P = Z I2 cosφ
P = R I2 kp = P/S = cos φ S = √(P2 + Q2)
S = U I* = Uejφu Ie-jφi = (UI)ej(φu-φi) = Sejφ = P + jQ
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 10/34
 AC CIRCUITS
Power in AC circuits. Applications

u(t) = √2·100 sin(314t + π/3)

i(t) i(t) = √2·2 sin(314t + π/6)
P=?
Q=?
u(t)
~ S=?

u(t) = 325 sin(314t)

u(t) = √2U sin(ωt + φu) P = 1730 W
Q = 1000 VAr
i(t) = √2I sin(ωt + φi) i(t) = ?

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 11/34

 AC CIRCUITS
AC Resistor with a sinusoidal supply

i(t)
I = U/R → Z = U/I = R
u(t)
φi = φu → φ = φu - φi = 0

R = Z cos φ = R
u(t) = √2U sin(ωt) (φu= 0) X= Z sin φ = 0
i(t) = u(t)/R
Z = R + jX = R
i(t) = √2(U/R) sin(ωt)

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 12/34

AC CIRCUITS
AC Resistor with a sinusoidal supply

P = RI2 > 0
Q = XI2 = 0
S = ZI2 = RI2 = P (kP = 1)
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 13/34
 AC CIRCUITS
AC Inductor with a sinusoidal supply
i(t) L = ct,
R=0 u(t) = √2 ωLI sin(ωt + π/2)

u(t) uL(t)

U = ωLI → Z = U/I = ωL
u(t) = √2U sin(ωt + φu)
φu = π/2 → φ = φu - φi = π/2
i(t) = √2I sin(ωt) (φi = 0)
u + e = Ri = 0 → u = - e R = Z cos φ = 0
u(t) = dΦ/dt = Ldi/dt
X= Z sin φ = ωL > 0
Z = R + jX = jωL
u(t) = √2ωLI cos(ωt)
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 14/34
AC CIRCUITS
AC Inductor with a sinusoidal supply

ZL=2πfL

P = RI2 = 0
Q = XI2 = ωLI2 > 0
I=U/(2πfL)
S = ZI2 = ωLI2

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 15/34

 AC CIRCUITS
AC Capacitor with a sinusoidal supply
iC(t)
u(t) = -√2I(1/ωC) cos(ωt + φi)

u(t) = √2I(1/ωC) sin(ωt + φi - π/2)

u(t) uC(t)
U = I/(ωC)
Z = U/I = 1/(ωC)
φu = φi -π/2 = 0→ φi = π/2
u(t) = √2U sin(ωt) (φu = 0) φ = φu - φi = -π/2, (kP = 0)
i(t) = √2I sin(ωt + φi)
R = Z cos φ = 0
i(t) = dq/dt = C du/dt X= Z sin φ = -1/(ωC) < 0
u(t) = (1/C)∫i(t)dt Z = R + jX = -j/(ωC)
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 16/34
AC CIRCUITS
AC Capacitor with a sinusoidal supply

I=2πfCU

P = RI2 = 0
Q = XI2 = -1/(ωC)I2 < 0 ZC=1/(2πfC)
S = ZI2 = I2/(ωC)
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 17/34
AC CIRCUITS
Applications

U U
U= 50 V
V
U= = 50
50 V
V = 50
1 μF
ff = ff =
= 50 Hz
= 5o Hz
5 kHz 5 kHz

ZL = 2πfL = 691.15 Ω ZC = 1/(2πfC) = 3.18 kΩ

IL = U/2πfL = 72.3 mA IC = 2πfCU = 15.7 mA

ZL = 2πfL = 69.115 kΩ ZC = 1/(2πfC) = 31.8 Ω

IL = U/2πfL = 0.723 mA IC = 2πfCU = 1.57 A

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 18/34

 AC CIRCUITS
Series RLC circuit

UR = ZRI = RI
UL = ZLI = jωLI
uR(t) uL(t) uC(t)
UC = ZCI = (-j/ωC)I
i(t)
U= I[R + j(ωL – 1/ωC)]
u(t)

u(t) = √2U sin(ωt+φu) Z = U/I = [R + j(ωL – 1/ωC)]

i(t) = √2I sin(ωt) (φi=0)
Z = √[R2 + (ωL – 1/ωC)2]
u(t) = uR(t) + uL(t) + uC(t)
U = UR + UL + UC tanφ = (ωL – 1/ωC)/R

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 19/34

 AC CIRCUITS
Series RLC circuit
j
UC Inductive reactance: φ > 0, X > 0
ωL > 1/ωC (ZL > ZC→ UL > UC)
UL
U
Capacitive reactance: φ < 0, X < 0
φ UR
ωL < 1/ωC (ZL < ZC → UL < UC)
I 1

Application 1 Rezonance: φ = 0, X = 0
UR = 40 V Application 2 ωL = 1/ωC (ZL = ZC → UL = UC)
UL = 50 V R = 10 Ω, L = 100 mH, C = 10 μF
UC = 20 V U = 100 V, f = 50 Hz
U = ?, tgφ = ? I = ?, tgφ = ?, UR = ?, UL = ?, UC = ?
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 19/34
 AC CIRCUITS
Resonance in series RLC circuit
j
Resonance: φ = 0, X = 0
UC
ω0L = 1/ω0C → ω0 = 1/√LC UL

ω0 = 2πf0 → f0 = 1/(2π√LC)
φ=0 UR
Consequence: UL = UC → UR = U I U 1

Z0 = Zmin = R → I0 = ImaxApplication
= U/R
R = 10 Ω, L = 100 mH, C = 10 μF
ω0L = 1/ω0C > R → UL U= = 100 V
U C >U R = U
f0 = ?, I0 = ?, UL = UC = ?
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 19/34
 AC CIRCUITS
Parallel RLC circuit
I
I = IR + I L + IC

U IR = U/ZR = U/R
IL = U/ZL = U/jωL = -jU/ωL
IC = U/ZC = U/(-j/ωC) =jωCU
I = U[1/R - j(1/ωL - ωC)]
u(t) = √2U sin(ωt) (φu = 0)
1/Z = [1/R - j(1/ωL - ωC)]
i(t) = √2I sin(ωt + φi)
1/Z = √[(1/R)2 + (1/ωL - ωC)2]
i(t) = iR(t) + iL(t) + iC(t)
tanφ = (1/ωL - ωC)/(1/R)
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 19/34
AC CIRCUITS
Parallel RLC circuit

imaginary u(t) = √2·50 sin(628t)

axis R = 50 Ω
L = 20 mH
IR U C = 5 μF
real Z = ?, IR = ?, IL = ?, IC = ?
φ axis I = ?, φ = ?
ZL = ωL = 628·0.02 = 12.6 Ω
ZC = 1/ωC = 1/(628·5·10-6)= 318.3 Ω
I Z = 1/√[(1/R)2 + (1/ωL - ωC)2] = 12.7 Ω
IL IR = U/R = 1 A, IL = U/ZL = 3.9 A, IC = U/ZC =
0.16 A, I = √[IR2 + (IL – IC)2] = 3.87 A,
IC φ = arctg[(1/ωL - ωC)/(1/R)] = 75.3 °

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 20/34

 AC CIRCUITS
Resonance in parallel RLC circuit
I

1/ωL = ωC
U

ω0 = 2πf0 = 1/√LC
f0 = 1/ (2π √LC)

1/Z0 = √(1/R)2
Resonance : φ = 0 Z0 = R = Zmax
tanφ = (1/ωL - ωC)/(1/R)

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 21/34

AC CIRCUITS
Parallel resonance circuit

imaginary
axis

IR = I U
φ=0 real
axis
IC IL

I0 = Imin = U/R

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 3 PHASE AC CIRCUITS
Symmetrical three-phase system

u1(t) = √2U sin(ωt)

u1 u2 u3
u2(t) = √2U sin(ωt – 2π/3)
u3(t) = √2U sin(ωt – 4π/3)
120° 120° 120°

u2(t) = √2U sin(ωt + 4π/3)

u3(t) = √2U sin(ωt + 2π/3)
U3
U1 = U ej0 2π/3
U1
2π/3
U2 = U ej4π/3 = a2U1 a = ej2π/3 2π/3
U2
U3 = U ej2π/3 = aU1

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 23/34

 THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
Symmetrical three-phase system
U1 – U2 = √3 U1 ejπ/6

U3
2π/3
U1 π/6
2π/3
2π/3
U2 U1 –U2
U1 – U2 = U1(1 – a2)
a2 = ej4π/3 =
= cos(4π/3) + j sin(4π/3)
(1 - a2) = 3/2 + j√3/2 =
= √3(√3/2 + j1/2) =
= √3[cos(π/6) + j sin(π/6)]
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 24/34
THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
Three-phase load. Three-phase connections
STAR (Y) connection DELTA (∆) connection

Il Iph Iph
Il
Uph Ul
neutral

Ul
line
line

Uph = Phase Voltage

Ul ≠ Uph
Ul = Line Voltage Il ≠ Iph
Iph = Phase Current
Il = Iph
Il = Line Current
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 25/34
THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
Unbalanced 3-phase load, STAR connection

U’1
I1 Z1 I1 + I2 + I3 = I0
L1
U’2 I1 = U’1/Z1 = (U1 – U0)/Z1
I2 Z2
L2 I2 = U’2/Z2 = (U2 – U0)/Z2
U’3
I3 Z3 I3 = U’3/Z3 = (U3 – U0)/Z3
L3
U0
U1 U2 U3
I0 Z0 (U1 – U0)/Z1 + (U2 – U0)/Z2 +
N
+ (U3 – U0)/Z3 = U0/Z0
U1, U2 = a2U1, U3 = aU1
U’1= U1 – U0
U0 = (U1/Z1 + U2/Z2 + U3/Z3)/(1/Z1 +
U’2 = U2 – U0
U’3 = U3 – U0 1/Z2+ 1/Z3+ 1/Z0)
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 26/34
THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
Unbalanced 3-phase load, STAR connection
U’1
I1 Z1 U’3
L1 U3
N’
U’2
I2 Z2 U’1
L2 N’ U0

I3 U’3
Z3 N U1
L3
U’2
U1 U2 U3 U0
I0 Z0
N
U2

U0 = 0 U’1 = U1 U 2’ = U 2 U’3 = U3

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 27/34

 THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
Balanced 3-phase load, STAR connection

I1
U’1 I1 = U1/Z = U1/(Zejφ) = (U1/Z)e-jφ
Z
L1 I2 = U2/Z = a2U1/(Zejφ) = a2I1
U31 I2 U’2
U12 Z I3 = U3/Z = aU1/(Zejφ) = aI1
L2 N’
U’3
U23 I3 Z I1, I2 = a2I1 I3 = aI1
L3
U0 U3
U1 U2 U3
I0 Z0
N I3 U31
U1
U1, U2 = a2U1, U3 = aU1 I2
U23 I1
U12
Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = Zejφ
U2
U0 = [(U1 + U2 + U3)/Z]/(3/Z + 1/Z0) = 0 Ul =√3 Uph
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 28/34
 THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
Balanced 3-phase load, DELTA connection

L1 I12 = U12/Z = U12/(Zejφ) = (U12/Z)e-jφ

I1 Z
U31
I12 I23 = U23/Z = a2U12/(Zejφ) = a2I12
U12 I31 = U31/Z = aU12/(Zejφ) = aI12
L2 I23 Z
I2
I12, I23 = a2I12 I31 = aI12
U23 Z I31 U31
I3 I31
L3
I3 I1 U12

U12, U23 = a2U12, U31 = aU12 I23 I12

I2
Z12 = Z23 = Z31 = Zejφ U23
Il =√3 Iph
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 29/34
 THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
Power in 3 - phase circuits

I1ph
U1 I1ph = U1/Z = Uph/(Zejφ) =
Z
L1 = (Uph/Z)e-jφ = Iph e-jφ
U2
I2ph Z I*1ph = Iph ejφ
L2
I2ph = U2/Z = a2Uph/(Zejφ) = a2Iph e-jφ
I3ph U3
Z I*2ph = aIph ejφ
L3
I3ph = U3/Z = aUph/(Zejφ) = aIph e-jφ
U1 U2 U3 U0 = 0
I0 Z0 I*3ph = a2Iph ejφ
N

U1 = Uph, U2 = a2Uph, U3 = aUph

Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = Zejφ S = U1ph I*1ph + U2ph I*2ph + U3ph I*3ph

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 30/34

 THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
Power in 3 - phase circuits

I1ph
U1 S = Uph Iph ejφ + a2Uph aIph ejφ +
Z
L1 + aUph a2Iph ejφ = 3UphIph ejφ
U2
I2ph Z (a3 = e2π = 1)
L2
I3ph Z
U3 ejφ = cosφ + j sinφ
L3
U1f U2f U3f U0 = 0 S = 3UphIph cosφ + j 3UphIph sinφ
I0 Z0
N
S = P + jQ

P = 3UphIph cosφ “STAR” P = √3UlIl cosφ

Uph = Ul/√3, Iph = Il
Q = 3UphIph sinφ “DELTA” Q = √3UlIl sinφ
Uph = Ul, Iph = Il/√3
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 31/34
 THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
Power in 3 - phase circuits. Application
U1
I1 R L1
L1 I1 R I12
U2 U31
I2 R
L2 U12

I3 U3 L2 I23 R
R I2
L3
U1 U2 U3
N U23 R I31
I3
L3
Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = R = 100 Ω
Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = R = 100 Ω
U1 = U2 = U3 = 230 V
U12 = U23 = U31 = 400 V
PY = √3UlIl cosφ =
P∆ = √3UlIl cosφ =
= √3·400·(230/100)·cos0 =
= √3·400·(√3·400/100)·cos0
= 1600 W
=
= 4800
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea W
de Constructii de Masini 32/34