Course : S0705 – Soil Mechanic

Year : 2013

TOPIC 3
COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL
 CONTENT

• SOIL STRESSES (SESSION 9 – 10 : F2F)

• SETTLEMENT OF SOIL (SESSION 11 : F2F)
• CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT (SESSION 12 – 13 : F2F)
• TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION (SESSION 14 : F2F)

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 SESSION 9 - 10
SOIL STRESSES

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 TOTAL NORMAL STRESS

• Generated by the mass in the soil body, calculated by sum up

the unit weight of all the material (soil solids + water) multiflied by
soil thickness or depth.
• Denoted as , v, Po
• The unit weight of soil is in natural condition and the water
influence is ignored.

    t .z
z = The depth of point

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 EXAMPLE

1m
t,1 = 17 kN/m3 A = t,1 x 1 m
3m ·A d,1 = 13 kN/m3 = 17 kN/m2

·B B = t,1 x 3 m

t,2 = 18 kN/m3 = 51 kN/m2

4m
d,2 = 14 kN/m3

C = t,1 x 3 m + t,2 x 4 m
· C
= 123 kN/m2
2m
t,3 = 18 kN/m3
4m
·D d,3 = 15 kN/m3 D = t,1 x 3 m + t,2 x 4 m
+ t,3 x 2 m
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 EFFECTIVE STRESS

• Defined as soil stress which influenced by water pressure in soil

body.
• Published first time by Terzaghi at 1923 base on the
experimental result
• Applied to saturated soil and has a relationship with two type of
stress i.e.:
– Total Normal Stress ()
– Pore Water Pressure (u)
• Effective stress formula

'    u

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 EFFECTIVE STRESS

'    u
   t .z u   w .z

'  (  t   w ).z   '.z

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 EXAMPLE

Sand
h1 = 2 m
t = 18.0 kN/m3
MAT
d = 13.1 kN/m3
h2 = 2.5 m

Clay
h3 = 4.5 m
t = 19.80 kN/m3

x
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 EXAMPLE
• Total Stress
 = d,1 . h1 + t,1 . h2 + t,2 . h3
 = 13.1 . 2 + 18 . 2.5 + 19.8 . 4.5
= 160.3 kN/m2

• Pore Water Pressure

u = w . (h2+h3)
u = 10 . 7
= 70 kN/m2

• Effective Stress
’ =  - u = 90.3 kN/m2

’ = d,1 . h1 + (t,2 - w) . h2 + (t,2 - w) . h3

’ = 13.1 . 2 + (18-10) . 2.5 + (19,8-10) . 4.5
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= 90.3 kN/m2
 EXAMPLE
Total Stress () Pore Water Pressure (u) Effective Stress (’)

26.2 kPa 26.2 kPa

-2.0

71.2 kPa 25 kPa 46.2 kPa

-4.5

160.3 kPa 70 kPa 90.3 kPa

-9.0

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Profile of Vertical Stress
 SOIL STRESS CAUSED BY EXTERNAL LOAD

• External Load Types

– Point Load
– Line Load
– Uniform Load

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 LOAD DISTRIBUTION PATTERN

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 STRESS CONTOUR

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 STRESS DISTRIBUTION

• Point Load
P

z 2

1
z

P
z  2
z
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 STRESS DISTRIBUTION

• Uniform Load

L
z
B

L+z
B+z

q.B.L
z 
( B  z )( L  z )
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 BOUSSINESQ METHOD

• Point Load
z 

P 3z 3 
 
P 5/ 2
2 r 2  z 2

P
 z  2 NB
z z

z

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 BOUSSINESQ METHOD

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 BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Line Load

2q z 3
q
z 
 x4

x x z2  r2
z

z

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 BOUSSINESQ METHOD

• Uniform Load
– Square/Rectangular
– Circular
– Trapezoidal
– Triangle

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 BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Rectangular

y
m = x/z
x
n = y/z
q
o

 z  qo  2

1  2mn m 2  n 2  1 m 2  n 2  2 
 tan

1  2mn m  n  1 
2 2 

4  m  n  1  m n

2 2 2
x 2

m n 12
  2 2 
 m  n  1  m n  
2 2

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 BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Rectangular

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 BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Circular

2r
At the center of circle (X = 0)
  2 1 , 5 
 r  
 z  q o 1  1     
 
  z  
 
 

For other positions (X  0),

z
Use chart for finding the influence
factor
z

x
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 BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Circular

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 BOUSSINESQ METHOD

• Trapezoidal

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 BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Triangle

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 EXAMPLE

• The 5 m x 10 m area uniformly loaded with 100 kPa

Y E A

5m

H I
D F

5m

B
C G J
5m 5m 5m
• Question :
1. Find the at a depth of 5 m under point Y
2. Repeat question no.1 if the right half of the 5 x 10 m area were loaded
with an additional 100 kPa
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 EXAMPLE

Question 1
Item Area
YABC -YAFD -YEGC YEHD
x 15 15 10 5
y 10 5 5 5
z 5 5 5 5
m = x/z 3 3 2 1
n = y/z 2 1 1 1
I 0.238 0.209 0.206 0.18
z 23.8 - 20.9 -20.6 18.0

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z total = 23.8 – 20.9 – 20.6 + 18 = 0.3 kPa
 EXAMPLE

Question 2
Item Area
YABC -YAFD -YEGC YEHD
x 15 15 10 5
y 10 5 5 5
z 5 5 5 5
m = x/z 3 3 2 1
n = y/z 2 1 1 1
I 0.238 0.209 0.206 0.18
z 47.6 - 41.9 -43.8 38.6

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z total = 47.6 – 41.9 – 43.8 + 38.6 = 0.5 kPa
 NEWMARK METHOD

 Z  q o .I .N

Where :
qo = Uniform Load
I = Influence factor
N = No. of blocks

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 NEWMARK METHOD
• Diagram Drawing
  2 1 , 5   2/ 3

1/ 2
   
r  r  z 
 z  q o 1  1       
1  q   1
 
  z  
  z 
 o  

 

1. Take z/qo between 0 and 1, with increment 0.1 or other, then find r/z value
2. Determine the scale of depth and length
Example : 2.5 cm for 6 m
3. Calculate the radius of each circle by r/z value multiplied with depth (z)
4. Draw the circles with radius at step 3 by considering the scale at step 2

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 NEWMARK METHOD

• Example, the depth of point (z) = 6 m

z/qo r/z Radius (z=6 m) Radius at drawing Operation

0.1 0.27 1.62 m 0.675 cm 1.62/6 x 2.5 cm

0.2 0.40 2.40 m 1 cm 2.4/6 x 2.5 cm

0.3 0.52 3.12 m 1.3 cm 3.12/6 x 2.5 cm

0.4 0.64 3.84 m 1.6 cm 3.84/6 x 2.5 cm

And so on, generally up to z/qo  1 because if z/qo = 1 we get r/z = 

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 NEWMARK METHOD

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 EXAMPLE
• A uniform load of 250 kPa is applied to the loaded area shown in next
figure :

• Find the stress at a depth of 80 m below the ground surface due to the
loaded area under point O’

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 EXAMPLE

Solution :
– Draw the loaded area such that
the length of the line OQ is scaled
to 80 m.
– Place point O’, the point where
the stress is required, over the
center of the influence chart
– The number of blocks are
counted under the loaded area
– The vertical stress at 80 m is then
indicated by : v = qo . I . N

v = 250 . 0.02 . 8 = 40 kPa

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 WESTERGAARD METHOD

• Point Load
P.a 1
z  1  2
2z 2   2 3/ 2 a
r  2  2
a    
2


 z 


P 1
=0 z 
z 2  2 3/ 2
r 
1  2  

 z 

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 WESTERGAARD METHOD

P
 z  2 Nw
z

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 WESTERGAARD METHOD

• Circular Uniform Load

 
 a 
 z  qo  1 


 z
a r
2 



1  2
a
2  2
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 WESTERGAARD METHOD

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 BOUSSINESQ VS WESTERGAARD

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 BOUSSINESQ VS WESTERGAARD

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 BOUSSINESQ VS WESTERGAARD

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 SESSION 11
SETTLEMENT OF SOIL

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 SETTLEMENT

• Definition
The total vertical deformation at the surface resulting from :
– External Load
– Dewatering
• Settlement Components
– Immediate Settlement ; Se
– Primary Consolidation Settlement ; Sc
– Secondary Settlement (Creep) ; Ss

S  Se  Sc  Ss
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 SETTLEMENT

• Purpose
– Study the settlement behavior
– Determine the settlement value and time
– Study the settlement influence to the structure stability

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 SETTLEMENT INFLUENCE

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 IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

• Defined as settlement which occurred directly after the application of

a load, without a change in the moisture content.
• Caused by soil elasticity behavior
• The magnitude of the contact settlement will depend on the flexibility
of the foundation and the type of material on which it is resting.
• For clay, the immediate settlement generally very small comparing
to the consolidation settlement, therefore this immediate settlement
mostly ignored.
• Usually considered at sand or sandy soil.

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 IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

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 IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

General Equation (Harr, 1966)

• Flexible Foundation
– At corner Se 
B.q o
Es

1   s2

2

– At center Se 
B.q o
Es

1   s2  
– Average Se 
B.qo
Es
 
1   s2 av

1   1  m 2  m   1  m 2  1  B
  ln  m. ln 
; m ; H=
   1  m 2  m   1  m 2  1 
 
 L
• Rigid Foundation

Se 
B.qo
Es

1   s2 r 
Es = Elasticity modulus of soil
B = Foundation width L = Foundation Length
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 IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

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 IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT
General Equation (Bowles, 1982)
1   s2
S e  qo .B'. .F1 M
L'
Es B'

1  
1  M2  1 M2  N2 
M  M2  1 1  N2  
 
F1  M . ln  ln  H
  N
M 1 M  N 1
2 2
M  M  N  1 
2 2
B'

Es = Elasticity modulus of soil

H = Effective thickness of soil layer, e.g. 2 to 4B under foundation

At the center L B and F1 is multiplied by 4

L'  B' 
2 2

At the corner L'  L B'  B and F1 is multiplied by 1

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 IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT
• Saturated Clay
qo .B
S e  A1 . A 2
Es

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 IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

• Sandy soil
 
z Iz
S e  C1.C2 q  q  z
0 Es
where :
– Iz = strain influence factor
– C1 = correction factor of foundation embedded thickness
= 1 – 0.5.[q/(q-q)]
– C2 = correction factor for soil creep = 1 + 0.2 . log(t/0,1)
– t = time in year
– q = the stress at foundation base caused by external load
– q =  . Df

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 IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

Modulus Young

Circular Foundation or L/B =1

z=0  Iz = 0.1
z = z1 = 0.5 B  Iz = 0.5
z = z2 = 2B  Iz = 0.0

Foundation with L/B ≥ 10

z=0  Iz = 0.2
z = z1 = B  Iz = 0.5
z = z2 = 4B  Iz = 0.0

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 EXAMPLE
A shallow foundation on a deposit of sandy soil that is 3m x 3m in plan. The actual variation of the
values of Young’s Modulus with depth determined by using the Standard Penetration numbers
(correlation : Es = 766N) are also shown in the following figure.

Estimate the immediate

settlement of the foundation
five years after construction
by using the strain influence
factor method.
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 EXAMPLE

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 EXAMPLE
Depth z Es Iz Iz
z
Es
(m) (m) (kN/m2) (average) (m3/kN)

0.0 – 1.0 1.0 8000 0.233 0.291 x 10-4

1.0 – 1.5 0.5 10000 0.433 0.217 x 10-4
1.5 – 4.0 2.5 10000 0.361 0.903 x 10-4
4.0 – 6.0 2.0 16000 0.111 0.139 x 10-4
 1.55 x 10-4

 q   17.8 x1.5   t   5 
C1  1  0.5   1  0.5   0.9 C2  1  0.2. log    1  0.2. log    1.34
qq  160  17.8x1.5   0.1   0.1 

 
2B Iz
Se  C1.C2 . q  q  .z
0 Es
Se  (0.9)(1.34)(160  17.8 x1.5)(1.55 x10 4 )
Se  24.8 mm
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 SESSION 12 - 13
CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

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 CONSOLIDATION

• When the stress on a saturated clay layer in the field is increased,

the pore water pressure in the clay will increase.
Because the coefficients of permeability of clays are very low, it
will take some time for the excess pore water pressure to
dissipate and the stress increase to be transferred to the soil
skeleton gradually.
• Consolidation is the process of dissipation of excess pore water
pressure in a row of time.
Note:
Dissipation of pore water pressure occurs simultaneously with the squeezing out
of the pore water. Therefore the consolidation time depend on:
The distance of pore water to be squeezed out
The coefficient of permeability of soft soil

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 CONSOLIDATION
a o

Valve
(soil’s perm eab ility)
a a
o

Spring Si
i
Ho

(soil partic les)

Water filled c ha m ber

(water saturated soil’s p ores)

(Ho - Si)
Pressure is b orne
by pore water
IDEALISASI

UNDRAINED
La tera l d eform ation
SETTLEMENT CURVE
IMMEDIATE
SETTLEMENT (Si)

PRIMARY OR
CONSOLIDATION
SETTLEMENT

SETTLEMENT (Sc )
Water is expelled

a i

Sc
a c

(Ho - Si - Sc)
SECONDARY HYDROSTATIC Spring c om pressed
SETTLEMENT (Ss) PRESSURE Water p ressure reduc ed
LOG TIME

CONSOLIDATION

No water flow

a a
c
s

Ss
(Ho - Si - Sc - Ss)

LOAD
All loa d is borne by spring

Hyd rostatic pressure

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DRAINED CREEP
 CONSOLIDATION

First time, suggested by Terzaghi (1920-1924) with several

assumption :
– 1 dimensional
– Saturation is complete
– Compressibility of water is negligible
– Compressibility of soil grains is negligible (but soil grains rearrange)
– Darcy’s Law is valid
– Soil deformation is small
– Soil permeability is constant
– Soil skeleton of each layer is homogeneous, so isotropic linier elastic
constitutive law is valid

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 CONSOLIDATION

• Consolidation Type
– Normal consolidation
Preconsolidation pressure (Pc) just equals the
existing effective vertical overburden pressure (Po)
– Over consolidation
If the soil whose preconsolidation pressure (Pc) is
greater than the existing overburden pressure

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 CONSOLIDATION

• Normal Consolidation
pc Cc p  p
pc  po OR 1 Sc  .Hc . log o
po 1  eo po

• Over consolidation

pc  po OR
pc
1
po
po + p < pc Cs p  p
Sc  .Hc . log o
1  eo po
Cs p Cc p  p
po < pc < po+p Sc  .Hc . log c  .Hc . log o
1  eo po 1  eo pc
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 CONSOLIDATION

Where :
– eo = initial void ratio which getting from index test
– Cc = compression index from consolidation test
– Cs = swelling index from consolidation test
– pc = preconsolidation pressure from consolidation test
– po =  ’.z
– p = the total stress at any depth of the clay layer caused by
external load, which can be determined by using method of
Boussinesq, Westergaard or Newmark

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 DETERMINATION OF CONSOLIDATION PROPERTIES

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 DETERMINATION OF CONSOLIDATION PROPERTIES

Procedures :
1. Determine the point O on the e-
lop p curve that has the sharpest
curvature (that is, the smallest
radius of curvature)
2. Draw a horizontal line OA
3. Draw a line OB that is tangent to
the e-log p curve at O
4. Draw a line OC that bisects the
angle AOB
5. Produce the straight line portion
of the e-log p curve backward to
intersect OC. This is point D. The
pressure that corresponds to the
point p is the preconsolidation
pressure, pc.
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 DETERMINATION OF CONSOLIDATION PROPERTIES

e1  e 2
Cc 
 p2 
log 
p  
 1
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 DETERMINATION OF CONSOLIDATION PROPERTIES

e 3  e4
Cs 
 p4 
log 
p  
 3

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 DETERMINATION OF COMPRESSIVE PARAMETER

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 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

e1  e 2
• Other equation av  '
S c  m v .H c .p
p 2  p1'
av
mv 
1  eo

Where :
mv = Compression Index
Hc = Thickness of soft soil layer
p = The stress increment due to the external
load

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 THE INFLUENCE OF PORE WATER PRESSURE

Two influences of pore water pressure to the settlement

are :
– Initial average overburden pressure (po)  should be in effective
condition (po’)
– External Load
the uplift of water pressure will reduce the increase of vertical
pressure by external load

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 SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION (CREEP)

• Occur after primary consolidation process finished

• Defined as an adjustment of soil skeleton after the
excess pore water dissipated.
• Depend on time and will be occurred in a long time
• Difficult to be evaluated

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 SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION (CREEP)

C t p  t
Ss  .H c . log
1  ep tp

Where :

e
C  See the graph
t
log 2
tp
ep = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation
tp = time at the end of primary consolidation
t = time increment
t2 = tp +t

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 SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION (CREEP)

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 EXAMPLE
A laboratory testing of consolidation for specimen thickness 25.4 mm is carried out to
determine the secondary settlement, with the result as shown in the following table :

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 EXAMPLE

Assume the thickness of the compressible layer is 10 m and the

consolidation settlement is 30 cm which occurs after 25 years. The
initial void ratio eo is 2.855, and the initial dial reading is 12.700
mm

Required :
Compute the amount of secondary compression that would occur
from 25 to 50 years after construction. Assume the time rate of
deformation for the load range in the test approximates that occur
in the field.

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 EXAMPLE

C = 0.052

ep = 2,372

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 EXAMPLE

C t p  t
Ss  .H c . log
1  ep tp

0.052  50 
Ss  .10. log  
1  2.372  25 

Ss = 4.6 cm

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 SESSION 14
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION

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 CONSOLIDATION TIME
Tv .H 2
t
Cv
Where :
t = consolidation time
Tv = consolidation factor depended on consolidation degree (U)
2
  U% 
U = 0 – 60% Tv   
4  100 

U > 60% Tv  1,781  0,933. log 100  U%

U = consolidation degree in percent, descript as ratio of

design settlement to total settlement

S c ,i
U x100%
Sc

Cv = coefficient of consolidation, get from consolidation test

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 CONSOLIDATION TIME
Tv .H 2
t
Cv
Where :
H = length of water path

Porous Layer Porous Layer

Hc Hc

Impermeable Porous Layer

layer
H = Hc H = 0.5Hc
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 EXAMPLE

A laboratory consolidation test on a normally clay showed the following result :

Load, p (kN/m2) Void ratio at the end of consolidation, e

140 0.92
212 0.86

The specimen thickness was 25.4 mm and drained on both sides. The time
required for the specimen to reach 50% consolidation was 4.5 min.
A similar clay layer in the field, 2.8 m thick and drained on both sides, is subjected
to similar average pressure increase that is po = 140 kN/m2 and po+p = 212
kN/m2. Determine the following :
1. The expected maximum consolidation settlement in the field
2. The length of time it will take for the total settlement in the field to reach 40 mm
3. Repeated no.2 problem in case of drained on one side

Bina Nusantara
 EXAMPLE

• Question no.1

e1  e2 0.92  0.86
Cc  Cc   0.333
 p2   212 
log 
 p 

log  
 140 
 1 

Cc p  p
Sc  .Hc . log o
1  eo po

0.333 212
Sc  . 2.8 . log  87.5mm
1  0,92 140
Bina Nusantara
 EXAMPLE
• Question no.2
– Determine the coefficient of consolidation (Cv)
From laboratory testing
H2
Cv  Tv
t
where :
Tv = /4 (U2) = 0.197 (U = 50%)
H = Hc/2 = 12.7 mm
t = 4.5 min

We got
12.7 2
Cv  0.197  7.061 mm2/min
4.5
Bina Nusantara
 EXAMPLE

• Question no.2
– Determine field consolidation coefficient
S c ,i 40
U x100%  x100%  45,7%
Sc 87,5
– Calculate consolidation time
Tv .H 2
t
Cv
Where :
U = 45.7%
Tv = /4 (U2) = 0.164 (U = 45.7%)
H = Hc/2 = 1.4 m = 1400 mm
Cv = 7.061 mm2/min

We got 0.164 x1400 2 = 45523 min = 31.6 days

Bina Nusantara t
7.061
 EXAMPLE
• Question no.3
– Calculate consolidation time

Tv .H 2
t
Cv
Dimana :
U = 45.7%
Tv = /4 (U2) = 0.164 (U = 45.7%)
H = Hc = 2.8 m = 2800 mm
Cv = 7.061 mm2/menit

Diperoleh 0.164 x 2800 2 = 182093 min = 126.5 days

t
7.061
Bina Nusantara