Fundamentals of CNC

Technology

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 What is a machine tool?
• The main function of a machine tool is to remove
metal from a piece of work to give the required
shape and size.
• This is accomplished by achieving proper relative
motion between the work-piece and the tool.
• Ranging from simple to complex pieces, machines
tools can produce parts of different shapes and sizes.

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 Types and Classification
There are many types and examples of machine tools:

1. Milling – Milling is the process of machining using rotary cutters to remove

material. Milling is a cutting process that uses a milling cutter to remove
material from the surface of a workpiece. The milling cutter is a rotary cutting
tool, often with multiple cutting points. As opposed to drilling, where the tool
is advanced along its rotation axis, the cutter in milling is usually moved
perpendicular to its axis so that cutting occurs on the circumference of the
cutter.

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Cont.

2. Grinding– a machine tool used for

grinding, a process whereby an
abrasive wheel is used as the cutting
tool. Grinding is used to finish
workpieces that must show high
surface quality.

3. Planer – a metalworking machine

tool that uses straight or linear
movement between the work piece
and a single-point cutting tool to
machine a linear tool path.
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Cont.
4. Lathe – a machine tool that
rotates a work piece on its axis to
carry out various operations such as
drilling, turning, boring, facing,
threading, grooving and parting off.

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 Cont.

5. Shaper – a machine tool that uses

straight or linear motion between the
work piece and a single-point cutting
tool to machine a linear tool path. A
shaper is similar to a planer, but it is
smaller, and has a cutter that rides a
ram which moves above a fixed work
piece, as compared to the whole work
piece moving underneath the cutter.

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Cont.
6. Broaching – a machine tool that
uses a toothed tool or a broach to
remove material. The tool can use
two types of broaching, namely
rotary and linear.

7. Drill - A drill is a tool primarily

used for making round holes or
driving fasteners. It is fitted with a
bit, either a drill or driver, depending
on application, secured by a chuck.

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 Conventional Machine Tool

• In conventional lathe the job is fixed between centers and made to rotate
by powering the spindle.

• The tool motion is achieved by operating the hand wheels and the feed
rates are manually controlled.

• The productivity and quality of the product depends on the operator’s skill
and attitude.

• These machines are characterized by low speed, feed and metal removal
rate.

• Producing complex part will be difficult

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 Limitations of conventional NC machines
1. Mistakes related with part programming (programming for the parts to be
manufactured):

When the programs of instructions related to the particular part to be manufactured

are written on the punched tape, the syntax or numerical mistakes are quite common.
The NC tape is not completed correctly in a single pass and at least three passes are
required to get the correct program written. Another major problem with the part
programming is achieving the best sequence of steps required for the machining the
part.

2. Non optimal speed and feeds: For most economic manufacturing of the object from
the raw material it should be given optimum speed and feeds during manufacturing.
The conventional numerical control does not provide opportunity to change the
speeds and feeds during the cutting operations, so the programmer is compelled to
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 Limitations of conventional NC machines
set the speeds and feeds for the worst-case conditions that can result in highly expensive
manufacturing due to wastages, and low quality jobs. This also results in manufacturing of the
jobs at lower than optimum productivity.

3. Punched tape: The punched, which is made up of paper and on which the program is written
is the problem in itself. This tape is fragile and susceptible to wear and tear so it has short life
and cannot be reliable enough for the repeated use. Instead of paper, other media like Mylar
can be used for writing the program of instructions,

but these materials are quite expensive.

4. Unreliable tape reader: The tape reader reads the program of instructions from the punched
tape, but it is considered to be highly unreliable hardware component of the NC machine. When
the NC machine breaks down the first thing the maintenance personnel checks is the tape
reader. 10
 Today’s requirement

• In recent times, the main requirement of the machining industry is that

the machine tool must be flexible, generally suitable for batch production,
capable of carrying out many operations on single setting and high metal
removal rate.

• The conventional machines don’t meet these requirements; hence the

machine tool with new concept was invented.

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 Numerically Controlled
Machine Tools
• Numerically controlled (NC) is the term to
describe the control of machine movements and
various other functions by instructions expressed
as a series of numbers, letters or symbols and
initiated in an electronic-controlled system.
Computer numerical control
• Computerized numerical control (CNC) is the
term used when the control system includes a
computer in the loop (1970s)

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 History of NC machines

• 1947-U.S. Air Force has great need for automated machining of free
from surfaces.
• Late 1940’s- John Person devices method involving drilling holes at
locations specified on punch cards.
• 1951 - Servo-mechanism Lab at MIT subcontracted to refine system.
• 1952 lab demonstrates modified milling machine (first NC
machine).MEEM4403 Computer Aided Design Methods.
• 1970-computer controlled developed (called computer numerical
control – CNC
• 1980’s- Direct Numerical Control
developed
• One mainframe
computer controls
many machines.

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 History of NC machine
• Mainframe computer sends programs to
PC controlling each NC machine.

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 Benefits of CNC

• Improved automation, Increased productivity, consistent quality,

reliable operation, higher accuracy, reduced non-productive time,
increased operation safety, automatic material handling.
• The operator invention related to producing work piece can be
reduced or eliminated.
• Many CNC machine can run attached during their entire machining
cycle ,freeing operator to do other tasks.
• Reduced operator fatigue
• Consistent and predictable machining time for each work piece.
• Today’s CNC machines boast almost unbelievable accuracy and
repeatability specifications.
• CNC machine tools are flexible. Since these machines are run from
program, running a different work piece is almost as easy as loading
a different program.

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 Any limitations of CNC?
Relatively few but…
• Initial cost and subsequent installation.
• Continuous working to meet cost.
• Steady flow of work is must.
• Operator skill and management.
• Lots of preplanning and requires high
maintenance cost.

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 Schematic of an NC machine tool
• MCU – machine control unit- controls the
motion of the NC machine tool
• DPU – data processing unit –reads and
interprets the part program; sends immediate
commands to CLU.
• CLU- control loop unit – reads position sensors
and sends control signals to motors.

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Numerical Control

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NC/CNC System Element

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Punched tape used for Transfer of Part
Program to NC Machine

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 CNC machine Basic Working
• Motion Control- The heart of CNC
- All forms of CNC equipment have to or more
direction of motion called axes.
- These axes can be precisely and automatically
positioned along their length of travel
• The two most common axis types are:
- Linear (driven along a straight path)
- Rotary (driven along a circular path)

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Cont…
• Controlled by G and M codes.
• These are number values and co-ordinates.
• Each number or code is assigned to a
particular operation.
• Typed in manually to CAD by machine
operators.
• G&M codes are automatically generated by
the computer software.
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 Conventional Machine - Working

• A conventional machine’s slide is moved by an operator

turning the hand wheel.
• Accurate positioning is accomplished by the operator
accounting the number of revolutions made on the hand
wheel, plus the graduation on the dial.

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In CNC Machine

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 In CNC Machines
• CNC machines allow motions to be actuated
by servomotors under control of CNC, and
guided by part program.
• Generally speaking, the motion type (rapid,
linear and circular), the axes to move, the
amount of motion and motion rate (feed rate )
are programmable with almost CNC machine
tools.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF CNC MACHINE TOOLS
Based on motion type – Point-to-Point & Contouring system
1. Point-to-Point - Some m/c tools like drilling, boring & tapping m/c etc.,
require the cutter & work piece to be placed at a certain fixed relative
position at which they must remain while the cutter does its work. Feed rates
need not to be programmed. In these machine tools, each axis is driven
separately. In a point-to-point control system, the dimensional information
that must be given to the machine tool will be a series of required position of
the two slides. Servo systems can be used to move the slides and no attempt
is made to move the slide until the cutter has been retracted back.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF CNC MACHINE TOOLS
2. Contouring system(Continuous path systems)-
• Other type of machine tools involves motion of work piece with respect to the
cutter while cutting operation is taking place. These machine tools include
milling, routing machines etc. and are known as contouring machines.
• These machines require simultaneous control of axes.
• In contouring machines, relative positions of the work piece and the tool should
be continuously controlled.
• The control system must be able to
accept information regarding velocities
and positions of the machines slides.
Feed rates should be programmed.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF CNC MACHINE TOOLS
Based on the control loops- Open Loop & Closed Loop
1. Open Loop- have no access to real time data about the performance of the
system and therefore no immediate corrective action can be taken in case of
system disturbance.
• This is the primary drawback of the open-loop system is that there is no
feedback system to check whether the program position and velocity has been
achieved.
• If the system performance is affected by load, temperature, humidity, or
lubrication then the actual output could deviate from the desired output.
• For these reasons the open -loop system
is generally used in point-to-point
systems where the
accuracy requirements
are not critical.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF CNC MACHINE TOOLS
2. Closed loop- The closed-loop system has a feedback subsystem to monitor the
actual output and correct any discrepancy from the programmed input. These
systems use position and velocity feed back.
• The feedback system could be either analog or digital. The analog systems
measure the variation of physical variables such as position and velocity in
terms of voltage levels.
• Digital systems monitor output variations by means of electrical pulses. To
control the dynamic behavior and the final position of the machine slides, a
variety of position transducers are employed.
• Majority of CNC systems operate on servo mechanism, a closed loop principle.
• If a discrepancy is revealed between where the machine element should be and
where it actually is, the sensing device signals the driving unit to make an
adjustment, bringing the movable component to the required location.
• Closed-loop systems are very powerful and accurate because they are capable of
monitoring operating conditions through feedback subsystems and
automatically compensating for any variations in real-time.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF CNC MACHINE TOOLS
Based on the number of axes 2,3,4,& 5 axes CNC machines-
• 1. 2 & 3 axes CNC machines: CNC lathes will be coming under 2 axes machines.
There will be two axes along which motion takes place. The saddle will be moving
longitudinally on the bed (Z-axis) and the cross slide moves transversely on the
saddle (along X-axis).
In 3-axes machines, there will be one more axis, perpendicular to the above
two axes. By the simultaneous control of all the 3 axes, complex surfaces can be
machined.
• 4 & 5 axes CNC machines:
4 and 5 axes CNC machines provide
multi-axis machining capabilities
beyond the standard 3-axis CNC tool
path movements. A 5-axis milling centre
includes the three X, Y, Z axes, the
A axis which is rotary tilting of
the spindle and the B-axis, which
can be a rotary index table. 30
 CLASSIFICATION OF CNC MACHINE TOOLS

Based on the power supply Electric & Hydraulic systems:

• Electric motors may be used for controlling both positioning and contouring
machines. They may be either a.c. or d.c. motor and the torque and direction of
rotation need to be controlled. Split field motors are the simplest form of motors
and can be controlled in a manner according to the machine tool.

• Hydraulic motors- may be used with positioning and contouring machine tools of
all sizes. These systems may be either in the form of rams or motors. Hydraulic
motors are smaller than electric motors of equivalent power. The advantage of
using hydraulic motors is that they can be very small and have considerable
torque.

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Types of CNC Machines

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CNC Vertical milling Machine

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CNC vertical Machining centre

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CNC Horizontal milling centre

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Double-column machining center

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CNC Turning Center

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CNC Dual Turret turning center

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Heavy duty CNC Lathe

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CNC measuring Machine

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CNC Fabrication Machine

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 STATIC, DYNAMIC AND THERMAL CONSIDERATION
IN MACHINE TOOLS
• Machine performance is therefore depending on stable environmental
conditions, but even internal factors influence the accuracy and stability of a
machine tool.
• The performance of the machine tool is the primary issue during the design
process since it directly affects the machining accuracy, repeatability,
productivity, and efficiency.
• It is desirable that the negative effects such as vibration and noise in the
machine tools used today be brought to a minimum level.
• The desirable properties of machine tool include high static stiffness for bending
and torsion, good dynamic characteristics, good dimensional stability, low
coefficient of expansion, low cost and low material requirements.
• The analysis of static rigidity and dynamic characteristics of machine tool is one
of the most important factors in designing high-precision and high efficiency
machines.
• To achieve perfection in machine tool structure design, one has to check the
design alternates for both the conditions, i.e. statically, which considers only
time independent parameters, and dynamically, which takes care of dynamic
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behavior of structure, during actual machining.
 THERMAL CONSIDERATION IN MACHINE TOOLS
• Beside the other factors, thermal influences are among the most
important factors affecting the production system.
• Thermal errors causes displacement by deformation or expansion of single
machine tool elements due to a change in temperature.
• The ability to keep the demanded configurations even under changing
thermal conditions can be defined as thermal stability.
Sources of thermal influences on a machine tool are listed below:
i. The cutting process itself and the heat generated in it.
ii. Heat generated by different heat sources inside the machine.
iii. Thermal influences provided by heating or cooling systems.
iv. Environmental conditions
v. The effect of people

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 Machining Centers
• The latest developments in the CNC machine
tools are the versatile machining center.
• This is a single machine capable of doing a
number of operations such as drilling, reaming
tapping, milling and boring.
• All types of tools are mounted on a drum/ chain
or egg box type magazine which are put into the
spindle by automatic tool changer (ATC) under
the control of tool selection instruction.
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 Establishing coordinate system
• Establish coordinate systems- Tool path coordinate system must
match machine tool coordinate system
• Z-direction-: same as tool spindle rotation or work-piece rotation
axis. + ve --- tool moves away from work-piece
• Y- direction: chosen to give right hand coordinate system

Some machine tools have secondary slide motion labeled u, v, and w.

• Some machine tool have rotational motion about x, y, and z axes
labeled a, b, and c respectively
• 2- axis machine allows controlling two motion simultaneously a 3-
axis machine allows controlling three motion simultaneously ,etc.
• 2-axis, 3-axis ,4-axis and 5-axis machines are most popular; 9 axis is
also available

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Establishing coordinate system

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 Electric drives
• Drive motor are required to perform the
following functions:
• To drive the main spindle (spindle drive)
• To drive the saddle or carriage(Axis drive)

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 Spindle drive
• In CNC machines, large variation in cutting speed is
required
• The cutting may vary from 10 meters per minutes to
1000meters per minutes
• The cutting speed are provided by rotation of main spindle
with the help of an electric motor through suitable gear
mechanism
• To obtained optimum cutting speed and feeds, the drive
mechanism should be such as to provide infinitely variable
speed between the upper and the lower limits.
• The infinitely variable speed system used CNC machines
employ either electrical motors (AC or DC) or fluid motors

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 Drive Motors
• The drive may be direct from the motor to
machine spindle or indirect, through belt or gear
transmission
• If belt drive is employed, toothed belts are used
and if gear drives are employed, is constant
meshing type of gear box where gears giving
various ratio are usually in constant mesh and are
operated by remote controlled electro magnetic
or hydraulic clutches
• Stepper motor drives have limited use in CNC
machines

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 Drive Motors
1. AC induction motors are used to drive main spindle directly
2. The AC induction motor are more reliable, easily maintainable and less
costly compared to other electrical motors
3. Speed variation in AC motors can be obtained by pole change method
4. The step-less speed variation can also be obtained by varying the
frequency of the help of frequency converters
5. DC motors are being extensively used for step less speed variation of
spindle
6. The step-less variation of speed is obtained by varying the D.C. voltage
applied to the motor
7. Fluid motor are also being used for driving the spindle
8. Pressurized oil or air supplier by a pump running at constant speed is
directed on to the blades of the motor, which are capable of giving very
high rotational speed

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Grinding Processes

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 GRINDING
Definition: Another material removal process, in
which abrasive particles are contained in bonded
grinding wheel, that operates at very high surface
speed.
the grinding wheel is usually in disk shaped and
is precisely balanced for high rotational speeds.
Process characteristics:
• Dimensional accuracy: 0.3 to 0.5 µm
• Surface finish: Ra = 0.15 to 1.25 µm
• Specific energy for grinding: 50 j/mm3 (other
processes: 2 to 5 j/mm3)

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Horizontal Grinding

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 Chip formation
• In grinding, the chips are small but are formed by the
same basic mechanism of compration and shear.
• Burning chips are the sparks observed during grinding
with no cutting fluid, because the chips have heat
energy to burn or melt I the atmosphere.
• The feed and the depth of cut in grinding are small,
while the cutting speed is high.
grinding may be classified as non-precision or
precision, according to the purpose and procedure.

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 Non-precision grinding
The common form called, snagging and off-hand grinding.
Both are done primarily to remove stock that can not be
taken of as conveniently by other methods.
The work is pressed hard against the wheel or vice versa.
The accuracy and surface finish are of secondary
importance.
Precision grinding
It’s concern with producing good surface finished and
accurate dimension.
3 types of precision grinding exists
External cylindrical grinding
internal cylindrical grinding
surface grinding

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 Grinding wheel
• A grinding wheel is made of abrasive grins held
together by bond.
• These grains cut like teeth when the wheel is
revolved at high speed and is brought to bear
against a work piece.
• The properties of a wheel that determine how it
acts are the kind and size of abrasive, how closely
the grains packed together and amount of
bonding material.

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 Grinding wheel specifications
• All grinding wheel manufacturers use substantially the
same standard wheel making system.
• This system uses numbers and letters to specify
abrasive type, grit size, grade structure, and bonding
material.
• However, properties of the wheels are determined to a
large extent by the way the wheels are made.
• The processes vary from one plant to another, and
wheels carrying the same symbols but made by
different manufacturers are not necessarily identical.

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Grinding wheel information

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American national standard institute's
marking system for standard wheels
Prefix-Abrasive type-Abrasive grain size-Grade-structure-
Bond-type-Manufacture record
Ex: 51-A-36-L-5-v-23
Prefix : Manufacturer symbol indicating exact kind of
abrasive (use optional)
Abrasive type: A: aluminum oxide
C: silicon carbide
B: boron nitride
D: diamond
Grain size: coarse:8-24,medium:30-60,fine:70-180,very
fine:>220

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 American national standard institute's marking
system for standard wheels(continue….)
Grade : ranges from A-Z, where A represent soft , Z
represent hard wheel grade.
Structure : Scale is numerical. 1: very dense and 15 very
open.
Bond type : B : Resinoid
E : Shellac
R : Rubber
S : Silicate
V : Vitrified
Manufacturer record : Manufacture’s private marking to
identify the wheel.

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Correctly Mounted Wheel

Bench or pedestal mounted grinders

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 Abrasive materials
• Different abrasive materials are appropriate
for grinding different work material.
• Abrasive are hard substances used in various
forms as tool for grinding and other surface
finishing operations.
• They are also able to cut materials which are
too hard for other tools and give better
finishes and hold closer tolerances.

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 Common abrasive materials
1. Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) known as Alundum or
Aloxide. Various substances may be added to
enchance hardness, toughness, etc. plain is
Al2O3 white, and used to grind steel ferrous ,
high strength alloys.
2. Silicon carbide (SiC) known in trade as
Carborundum and Crystalon. Harder than Al2O3,
but not tough. Used to grind : aluminum, brass,
stainless steel, cast iron, certain brittle ceramics

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Common abrasive materials(continue)
• Boron Nitride in the forms of single-crystal
cubic boron nitride (CBN) and microcrystalline
cubic boron nitride (MCBN) under trade
names such as Boraszon or Borpax . Used for
hard materials such as hardened tool steels
and aerospace alloys.
• Diamond a pure form of carbon. Used on hard
materials such as ceramics cemented carbide
and glass.

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Characteristics of abrasives

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 Bonding materials
To get wide range of properties needed in grinding
wheels, abrasive materials bonded by using
organic or inorganic materials.
Inorganic bonds :
1. Vitrified bond: clay bond melted to a porcelain
or glass like consistency.
it can be made strong and rigid for heavy
grinding and not affected by water ,oil , acids.
2. Silicate bond: essentially water glass hardened
by baking. It holds grains more loosely than a
vitrified bond gives closer cut .
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Bonding materials and wheel speeds

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 Wheel shape and sizes
The principal dimensions that designate the size
of grinding wheel are the outside diameter,
width, hole diameter. Standard wheel shapes
are made in certain sizes only, but variety is
large.

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Surface Grinding Operations

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Surface Grinding

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Cylindrical Grinding Operations

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Centerless Grinding

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Grind Wheel Dressing

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Grind Wheel Dressing

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 Honing Process
• Honing is a low abrading which uses bonded
abrasive wheel sticks for removing stock from
metallic and non metallic cylindrical surfaces as
well as flat surface.
• Performed as a final operation to correct the
errors that have occurred from the previous
machining operations.
Objective:
Correction of geometrical accuracy – out of
roundness, taper, axial distortion
Dimensional accuracy
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 Session Summary
• Principles of grinding
• Classification of grinding processes
• Grinding wheel specifications
• Details of abrasive wheel parameters
• Different wheel forms
• Dressing of grinding wheels
• A brief outline of honing process
have been discussed

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