VOICE AND DATA

COMMUNICATIONS
Lecturer: Ngwa Collins A.
Email:ncollins3002@yahoo.com
Tel:676425241
COMMUNICATIONS
It is any transmission, emission, or reception of signs,
signals, writings, images and sounds or intelligence of
any nature by wire, radio, optical or other
electromagnetic system.
 COMMUNICATION MODEL
A communication model comprises of the following subsystems:
• Source – Generates the data to be transmitted
• Transmitter – Converts the data into transmittable signals
• Transmission system – Carries the data.
• Receiver – Converts received signals into data.
• Destination – Takes incoming data.
ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION MODEL
THE KEY COMMUNICATION TASKS ARE:
• Transmission system utilization
• Interfacing
• Signal generation
• Synchronization
• Exchange management
• Error detection and correction
• Addressing and routing
• Security and network management
NETWORK MODEL
HOW DOES THE INTERNET LOOK LIKE?
 COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE
It is a set of computer programs which are used for
generation, transmission and reception of information
between/among the set of computers connected by wired
or wireless media.
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN TWO SYSTEMS
PROTOCOL
• It is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of
frames, packets, or messages that are exchanged by peer
entities within a layer.
• Protocol are used for communications between entities in
a systems.
• Entities use protocols
in order to implement their service definitions.

The key elements of a protocol are:

Syntax : Include Time data formats and signal levels
Semantics: Includes control information and error handling.
A SIMPLE PROTOCOL FLOWCHART
1. LANS, WAN , MAN & SAN
A communication network interconnects a variety of
devices and provides a means for information
exchange among those devices.

Local Area Networks

Wide Area Networks
Metropolitan Area Networks
Storage Area Networks
 WIDE AREA NETWORKS
WANs cover a large geographical area, may require the
crossing of public right-of-ways, and may rely at least in part
on circuits provided by a common carrier.

WAN consists of a number of interconnected switching nodes.

A transmission from anyone device is routed through these

internal nodes to the specified destination device.
 WIDE AREA NETWORKS
Data Rates:
Traditionally, for data attachment, either to a data network
or to a telephone network by means of a modem, data rates of
64 Kbps or less have been common.
T1 has been able to operate at 1.544 Mbps.
The high-speed WANs by using optical fiber provide user
connections in the 10s and 100s of Mbps, using
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM).
LOCAL AREA NETWORKS
Several key distinctions between LANs and WANs:
1) The scope of the LAN is small, typically a single
building or a cluster of buildings.
2) LAN has the same owner as attached devices.

3) The internal data rates of LANs are typically much

greater than those of WANs.
LOCAL AREA NETWORKS
A typical LAN:
All of the devices are attached to a
shared transmission medium.
A transmission from anyone device can be received by
all other devices attached to the same network.
LOCAL AREA NETWORKS
Data Rate:
 Traditional LANs provide 1 to 20 Mbps.
These data rates have become increasingly inadequate
with the proliferation of devices.

 High-speed LANs, with data rates of 100 Mbps to

10 Gbps.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS
MAN occupies a middle ground between LANs and
WANs.

MANs cover greater distances at higher data rates

than LANs, although there is some overlap in
geographical coverage.

The primary market for MANs is the customer that has

high-capacity needs in a metropolitan area.
SAN (STORAGE AREA NETWORK)
• Another kind of network that we need to be
aware of is SANs (usually now expanded as
storage area networks, but formerly also
known as system area networks).

• SANs are usually confined to a single room

and connect the various components of a
large computing system.
LAYERING AND PROTOCOLS
Abstraction:
— the hiding of details behind a well-defined interface
— is the fundamental tool used by system designers to
manage complexity.
LAYERING AND PROTOCOLS
Each protocol defines two different interfaces.
First, it defines a service interface to the
other objects on the same computer that
want to use its communication services.

This service interface defines the operations

that local objects can perform on the protocol.

For example, a request/reply protocol would

support operations by which an application can
send and receive messages.
LAYERING AND PROTOCOLS
Each protocol defines two different interfaces.

2nd, a protocol defines a peer interface to its

counterpart (peer) on another machine.

This second interface defines the form and meaning of

messages exchanged between protocol peers to
implement the communication service.
LAYERING AND PROTOCOLS
Each protocol defines two different interfaces.
SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
For transmission of data beyond a local area,
communication is typically achieved by transmitting
data from source to destination through a network of
intermediate switching nodes. (train example)

The switching nodes are not concerned with the

content of the data.
They just determine the route of data transmission.

Each station attaches to a node, and the collection of

nodes is referred to as a communication network.
Signal can route
from each
station A, B, C,
D, E & F to each
other of them,
via the nodes, 1,
2, 3, 4, … or 7.
A SIMPLE SWITCHING NETWORK
Several observations are in order:
1. Some nodes connect only to other nodes (e.g.,
5 and 7). Their task is internal (to the network)
switching of information. Other nodes have one or
more stations attached as well; in addition to their
switching functions, such nodes accept information
from and deliver information to the attached
stations.
A SIMPLE SWITCHING NETWORK
Several observations are in order:
2. Node-station links are generally dedicated point-to-
point links.
Node-node links are usually multiplexed links, using
either frequency division multiplexing (FDM) or
some form of time division multiplexing (TDM).
A SIMPLE SWITCHING NETWORK
Several observations are in order:
3. Usually, the network is not fully connected; that is,
there is not a direct link between every possible pair of
nodes.
However, for reliability of the network, it is always
desirable to have more than one possible path through
the network for each pair of stations.
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Two quite different technologies are used in wide area switched
networks: circuit switching and packet switching.

Circuit switching has been the dominant technology for both

voice and data communications. Communication via circuit
switching implies that there is a dedicated communication path
between two stations.
That path is a connected sequence of links between network
nodes.

On each physical link, a channel is dedicated to the connection.

The most common example of circuit switching is the telephone
network.
CIRCUIT
SWITCHING
Communication via circuit switching involves three
phases,
1. Phase 1 : Circuit establishment.
Before any signals can be transmitted, an end-to-end (station-to-station)
circuit must be established.
For example, station A sends a request to node 4 requesting a
connection to station E. Typically, the link from A to 4 is a dedicated
line, so that part of the connection already exists. Node 4 must find
the next leg in a route leading to E. Node 4 selects the link to node
5, allocates a free channel (using FDM, or TDM) on that link, and
sends a message requesting connection to E. The remainder of the
process proceeds similarly. Node 5 dedicates a channel to node 6 and
internally ties that channel to the channel from node 4. Node 6
completes the connection to E. In completing the connection, a test is
made to determine if E is busy or is prepared to accept the
connection.
CIRCUIT
SWITCHING
Phase 2 : Information transfer.

Information can now be transmitted from A through the network to E.

Transmission can be digital or analog.

The path is : A-4 Iink, internal switching through 4, 4-5 channel,

internal switching through 5, 5-6 channel, internal switching
through 6, 6-E link.

Generally, the connection is full duplex, and signals may be

transmitted in both directions simultaneously.
CIRCUIT
SWITCHING
Phase 3. Circuit disconnect.

After some period of information transfer, the connection is

terminated, usually by the action of one of the two stations.
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Note:
The connection path is established before data
transmission begins.

Channel capacity must be reserved between each pair of

nodes.

Channel capacity is dedicated for the duration of a

connection, even if no data are being transferred.
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Circuit Switching Delay:
There is a delay prior to signal transfer for call establishment.
However, once the circuit is established, the network is
effectively transparent to the users.

After establishing circuit, Information is transmitted at a fixed data

rate with no delay other than the propagation delay through the
transmission links.

The delay at each node is negligible.

CIRCUIT SWITCHING
The best-known example of a circuit-switching
network is the public telephone network.

This is actually a collection of national networks

interconnected to form the international service.
Although originally designed and implemented to
service analog telephone subscribers, it handles
substantial data traffic via modem and is well on its
way to being converted to a digital network.
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING
The best-known example of a circuit-switching network is the
public telephone network.

Another well-known application of circuit switching is the private

branch exchange (PBX), used within a building or office.
 FOUR GENERIC ARCHITECTURAL
COMPONENTS
A public telecommunications network can be described using
four generic architectural components:
FOUR GENERIC ARCHITECTURAL
COMPONENTS
A public telecommunications network can be described
using four generic
architectural components:

1) Subscribers:
The devices that attach to the network.
It is still the case that most subscriber devices to
public telecommunications networks are
telephones, but the percentage of data traffic
increases year by year.
FOUR GENERIC ARCHITECTURAL
COMPONENTS
2) Subscriber line:
The link between the subscriber and the network.
Almost all subscriber line connections use twisted pair
wire.
The length of a subscriber line is typically in a range
from a few kilometers to a few tens of kilometers.
The subscriber line is also known as a subscriber loop,
or a local loop.
FOUR GENERIC ARCHITECTURAL
COMPONENTS
3) Exchanges:
The switching centers in the network. A switching
center that directly supports subscribers is known as
an end office.
Typically, an end office will support many thousands of
subscribers in a localized area.
FOUR GENERIC ARCHITECTURAL
COMPONENTS
Trunks:
The branches between exchanges.
Trunks carry multiple voice-frequency circuits using
either FDM or synchronous TDM.
Earlier, these were referred to as carrier systems.
FOUR GENERIC ARCHITECTURAL
COMPONENTS

TDM Channel
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Circuit-switching technology has been driven by its use
to carry voice traffic. One of the key requirements for
voice traffic is that there must be virtually no
transmission delay and certainly no variation in
delay.

Circuit switching achieved its widespread, dominant

position because it is well suited to the analog
transmission of voice signals.
In today's digital world, its inefficiencies are more
apparent. However, despite the inefficiency, circuit
switching is and will remain an attractive choice for
both local area and wide area networking.
Two shortcomings of circuit switching became apparent:

1. In a typical terminal-to-host data connection, much of the time

the line is idle.
2. In a circuit-switching network, the connection provides for
transmission at a constant data rate. Thus each of the two
devices that are connected must transmit and receive at the
same data rate as the other, which limits the utility of the
network in interconnecting a variety of host computers and
terminals.

Packet switch is for solving these problems.

 PACKET SWITCHING
Data are transmitted in blocks, called packets.
A typical upper bound on packet length is 1000 octets
(bytes).
Every long message is broken up into a series of
packets. Each packet consists of a portion of the data
that a station wants to transmit, plus a packet header
that contains control information.

The control information includes the information that

the network requires in order to be able to route the
packet through the network and deliver it to the intended
destination.
 PACKET SWITCHING

At each node of route, the packet is received, stored briefly,

and after decision in the node for next leg, the packet is
passed on to the next node.
ADVANTAGES
Advantages of Packet Switching
1) Line efficiency is greater, since a single node-to-
node link can be shared by many packets over time
(not the same time).
By contrast, with circuit switching, time on a node-
to-node link is pre-allocated using synchronous time
division multiplexing. Much of the time, such a link
may be idle because a portion of its time is dedicated
to a connection that is idle.
ADVANTAGES
2) Two stations of different data rates can exchange
packets, since each connects to its node at its proper
data rate.

3) When traffic becomes heavy on a circuit-switching

network, some calls are blocked; that is, the network
refuses to accept additional connection requests until
the load on the network decreases.
On a packet-switching network, packets are still
accepted, but delivery delay increases.
ADVANTAGES
4) Priorities can be used.
Thus, if a node has a number of packets queued for
transmission, it can transmit the higher-priority
packets first. These packets will therefore experience
less delay than lower-priority packets.
 DISADVANTAGES
1) Each time a packet passes through a packet-switching node it
incurs a delay not present in circuit switching.
At a minimum, it incurs a transmission delay equal to the
length of the packet in bits divided by the incoming channel
rate in bits per second.

2) Because the packets between a given source and destination

may vary in length, may take different routes, and may be
subject to varying delay in the switches they encounter, the
overall packet delay can vary substantially.
This phenomenon is called jitter.
 DISADVANTAGES

3) To route packets through the network, overhead

information, including the address of the destination,
and often sequencing information must be added to
each packet, which reduces the communication
capacity available for carrying user data.
This is not needed in circuit switching
once the circuit is set up.
DISADVANTAGES
4) Processing is involved in the transfer of information
using packet switching than in circuit switching at each
node.
In the case of circuit switching, there is virtually no
processing at each switch once the circuit is set up.
BASIC OPERATION
How the network handles the stream of packets
TO BE CONTINUED !