THE LAY OF

THE LAND
Ecosystem Diversity in the
Philippines
Here in this country, topography
varies to a great extent, ranging
from coastal wetlands to upland
region watersheds. It follows, thus,
that the country is home to several
types of ecosystems, which can be
classified according to their
defining features as follows:
 General Types Sub-types (Lower
Major Features
(Higher Level) Level)
• Sub-alpine forest
• Mossy forest
• Montane forest (upper
and lower) Forest types classified
• Pine forest based on:
• Semi-deciduous forest •Altitude ranging from
(moist deciduous) sea level to 3,000
•Lowland evergreen meters above sea level
forest •Presence of dominant
Terrestrial Ecosystem
•Forest over limestone forest species and
(karst) endemic/native plants
•Forest over ultrabasic •Amount of soil nutrients
soil and moisture
•Forest over ultramafic •Type of soil minerals
rocks and soil chemistry
•Grassland (upland and
lowland)
 General Types Sub-types (Lower
Major Features
(Higher Level) Level)
•Lacustrine: Lakes
•Inland wetlands
and ponds
Freshwater classified based on
•Riverine: rivers,
Ecosystem hydrodynamics and
streams, creeks
geography
•Palustrine: marshes

•Found along the

shoreline and extending
seaward, found mostly
in the mouths of rivers
Brackish/Estuarine •Mangrove swamp •Classified based on
Ecosystem •Nipa swamp dominant
species/genera
•Coastal wetlands
where sea water and
 General Types Sub-types (Lower
Major Features
(Higher Level) Level)
•Coastal marine
wetlands
•Mudflats
Saltwater/Marine •Classified based on
•Seagrass belts
Ecosystem dominant species/taxa,
•Coral reefs
physical features, and
geography
•Hollow spaces or
cavities beneath the
surface of the earth,
often with one or
several openings to the
Special Ecosystems •Caves
surface
•May be classified based
on the nature of mineral
deposits and geological
formations
Forest Ecosystem
■ Forests are inherently diverse
ecosystems, as conditions
found within them are ideal
for supporting symbiotic
ecological relationships.
■ This is especially so in the
Philippines, where the
tropical climate allows forests
to receive, absorb, and
redistribute rainwater to
support life not only within
themselves, but also to other
nearby and adjacent
ecosystems where the water
reserves are released.
Forest Ecosystem
■ Primarily, forests serve as the country’s most important source
of water, thus allowing all other forms of natural resources to
flourish and become productive. Forest ecosystems naturally
provide clean air and food in the process.
■ Unfortunately, forests are heavily prone to abuse and
exploitation. Over the last century, human populations
consumed and altered forest landscapes in favor of agricultural
development and urbanization. It is estimated that from having
70% forest cover at the start of the 1900s, only about 24%
remain, based on 2001-03 satellite imagery,
■ The problem of forest degradation and destruction continues
due to the prevalence of logging practices both legal and
otherwise, mining, and land conversion.
 Mangrove Ecosystem
■ Another prominent type of ecosystem that
naturally occurs in the Philippines, given
the multitude of coastal areas of this
country, is the mangrove ecosystem.
■ Mangroves are medium-size and highly
tolerant flora that can survive in brackish
water (water which is more saline than
freshwater, but not as much as seawater).
■ The Philippines boasts having more than
half of the world’s 70 mangrove species.
 Mangrove Ecosystem
■ People draw benefits from mangrove systems as they serve as
breeding and feeding grounds for local terrestrial and aquatic
species, while also being “stop-over sites” for migratory
species.
■ They also contribute to ecological balance by stabilizing and
minimizing sedimentation and siltation in coral reefs, while also
facilitating the increase of land area by way of accumulated
soil and debris.
■ While mangrove ecosystems are already dynamic and unstable
environments due to their location, they are also commonly
threatened by human interaction due to the utilization and
consumption of coastal communities.
Agricultural Ecosystem
■ Agricultural ecosystems are artificial
ecosystems created in the process of
developing land and coastal/aquatic
areas for farming, animal husbandry,
and fishing.
■ Since agriculture evolved to bring about
gains for human societies, it follows that
people have continued to draw
numerous benefits from these types of
ecosystems.
■ It has served as people’s primary source
of sustenance and livelihood, as well as
other basic needs, for generations. 
Agricultural Ecosystem
■ In the case of the Philippines, it is historically one of the primary economic
drivers for the country.
■ There are approximately 1,210 local agricultural plant species here, over a
third of which has food value. Agriculture also supports other cash crops for
feed, medicinal/herbal, ornamental, and industrial values. Rice, corn, and
coconut are the main types of produce obtained through agriculture in the
Philippines.
■ On one hand, continuous urban development for residential and commercial
land use is encroaching on agricultural lands. In turn, farmers are forced to
move upland, harming forest ecosystems in the process
■ Another important issue that needs to be addressed in matters regarding
agriculture is the debate involving high value hybrid crops and genetically
modified organisms that was sparked by the so-called Green Revolution of the
1960s.
 Marginal Ecosystem
■Marginal ecosystems are those
that are located between two
ecosystems.
■These can be either natural or
artificial, such as areas adapted
or reappropriated for
agricultural use.
■Marginal lands now comprise
about 70% (over 11 million
hectares) of declared forest
area in the Philippines.
 ■ Urban ecosystems are the
Urban Ecosystemproduct of modernized,
industrialized human society.
■ These function as the base of
human settlements, as well
as economic development.
■ They are a testament to the
economic, academic, and
technological progress that
humankind has achieved
through generations.
■ That said, they are still
rapidly expanding, often to
the detriment of natural
ecosystems.
Urban Ecosystem
■ Although urban ecosystems continue to grow,in terms
of geographic and demographic sizes alike, their
carrying capacities remain limited.
■ The draw of “greener pastures” in urban locales tend
to result in over-population that strains limited
resources, making these ecosystems increasingly
impractical and hazardous to the health and well-
being of its inhabitants. 
 Coral Reef Ecosystem
■ Whereas forests are a distinctive
feature of the Philippines’s terrestrial
biodiversity, coral reefs give the
country a likewise sterling reputation
when it comes to aquatic ecosystems.
■ Owning 5% of the world’s total
617,000 sq km of coral reefs, the
Philippines is part of the world’s
“Coral Triangle,” joining Indonesia,
Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the
Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste as
countries that bear the most extensive
coral reef ecosystems in the world
 Coral Reef Ecosystem
■ Coral reefs are comprised of massive deposits of calcium carbonate
that take centuries to produce and develop.
■ Because of such a long process, coral reefs are very delicate
ecosystems and are due extensive protective measures. A recent
example of damage occurred at the Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea in
January 2013, where approximately 1,000 square meters of coral reef
was damaged.
■ These ecosystems are the natural habitat of fish species and other
marine organisms, where feeding, breeding, and spawning happens at
incredibly productive levels. They also serve as natural breakwaters
that protect coastal areas from waves and storms, facilitate coralline
sand production that create remarkable white sand beaches that are a
hit among tourists, and enable oxygen production through supporting
photosynthetic algae.
 ■ Freshwater ecosystems
Freshwater Ecosystem
occur in in-land bodies of
water and may either be
flowing, standing, or man-
made.
■ Rivers and streams, lakes
and reservoirs, and artificial
fishponds are examples that
fall into the three respective
categories.
■ All of these are
distinguished by low-salinity
water that flow from the
natural rainwater catch
basins created by forests. 
 Seagrass and Soft-Bottom
Ecosystems
■ Seagrass ecosystems
comprise of aquatic
flowering plants that can
live in seawater. These
types of ecosystems
occur in shallow water
environments. 
■ Primarily, seagrass
supports biodiversity by
functioning as a food
source for grazing and
detritus-feeding
creatures.