Tunnelling in Soft Ground

By: Iman Safiya

Scope
• Difference between tunnelling in soft ground and rock
 Elastic properties and strength intact rock which are not greatly
modified by presence of water, which allows cavity to remain self-
supporting
 Contrast to lower strength of soft ground and dependence of its
properties on the presence and movement of porewater and its
pressure pattern
Excavation
• Behaviour Terzaghi has classified:
1. Firm
2. Ravelling
3. Running
4. Flowing
5. Squeezing
6. Swelling
For any category other than FIRM, some form of immediate support is
always necessary.
• GRANULAR SOILS
 Unless cemented naturally or grouting, will tend to slip at any
exposed face until its angle of repose is attained; any inflow of water
is liable to wash out the fine sand
 Crown of the tunnel is very vulnerable to gravel flow, and timber
poling is necessary to hold the top except where a hooded shield is
effective or suitable ground treatment
 Support at the face is rather to prevent initiation of movement than
to carry any great thrust,
 Little or no cohesion and no tensile strength in such ground and any
small cavity developed must be secured to prevent loosening of large
volume
 Water flow in the face may wash out the fines and loosen the ground
• SILT
 Finer grained and needs more care particularly when in presence of
water; as its cohesive properties are very sensitive to water content
 Compressed air is most valuable aid in tunnelling silt, as it dries out to
become brittle and became fluid if there are water present.
 Grouting is usually unsatisfactory in silt because of failure to
permeate the fine pore structure unless very expensive chemical
grouts of low viscosity can be used
• ORGANIC SOIL
 May differ appreciably from inorganic soil, permeability is low and
high compressibility
 Gives rise to discharge of noxious gas (carbon dioxide, sulphuretted
hydrogen, or methane)
 Requires adequate ventilation
• CLAY
 Valuable cohesive and plastic properties that can provide excellent
tunnelling ground except when it too soft or badly fissured
 Permeability is low and except to the extent of fissuring provides a
seal against entry of water
 It swell slowly when exposed in an excavation and exert increasing
active pressure on any support or lining
 Plasticity of clay allows it to deform under change of loading and to
creep in at the face, slowly in stiff clay but more rapid in soft clay
 The deformation must be restrained within small limits if disturbance
of the ground and its stress structure is to be limited
 Swelling of clays is attributed to pore water moving into the space
where previously existing stress has been relaxed by the excavation
• CLAY
 Swelling of clays is attributed to pore water moving into the space
where previously existing stress has been relaxed by the excavation
 Water entering along fissures may wash out material and enlarge the
water passage, and it can soften the clay
 In extreme case, clay or silt may be soft and plastic that a shield can
be advanced with closed face, with shuttered openings through which
as much ground as necessary is extruded into the tunnel
 At other extreme case, clay may be so stiff and sound that, in a small
tunnel, no immediate support is required
CIRCULAR TUNNEL SEGMENTAL LINING
• Tunnel with segmental lining driven in soft ground without a shield,
timbering of the top and face is likely to be required
• Structural strength and spacings of the timber will be determined by
the nature of the ground, and importance of safeguarding the
overlying ground against any settlement
• In stiff clay such close timbering is unlikely necessary except during
periods when work is interrupted
• Principles of supporting top and face should be followed at every ring
by provision of main structural elements of the support system
PERMANENT LININGS
• Purpose:
 Structurally, to contain and support the exposed ground
 Operationally, to provide internal surface appropriate to the function
of the tunnel
• Primary lining – function of permanent structural support
• Secondary lining – subsequent interior treatment
Primary Requirements
• To provide necessary structural support
• To control or eliminate inflow or escape of water
• To accommodate the operational cross-section
Structural support
• When tunnel is excavated, the existing stable equilibrium of the ground is
disturbed; thus new stress pattern needs to be established with aid of supporting
structures
• Timing of support is vital; to restrain any movement immediately
• To allow strain movement in surrounding ground, with natural stress changes, to
establish new and stable equilibrium
• Soft ground support – basis of modern analysis & design is that ground and lining
ultimately act together as composite structure
• Important aspect of lining design in SG – changes of shape of the excavated cavity
- Circular hole will usually distort to an ellipse with its major axis horizontal, because
of the action of vertical stress resulting from overburden
- Rigid circular lining within this will resist distortion & be subject to bending stresses
- Flexible lining will conform to the ellipse but develop passive earth pressure,
where it displaces the soil outwards
- Flexible lining acting compositely with the soil offers a thinner & lighter design
than a rigid which must resist heavy bending moment
TUNNEL JACKING
PIPE JACKING
• This technique is most suitable for relatively short straight lengths of small
diameter in soft ground, but limitations imposed can be overcome
• Pipe jacking has been widely used as an alternative to open trench work, or
lengths of timbered heading, where surface access is difficult and settlement at
the surface must be minimised
• Pipe thrusting, in which the ground is displaced and not excavated, is essentially a
small bore pipe method
• Horizontal auger boring is feasible for pipelines up to 1 ½ m dia. but for limited
lengths
• Tunnel jacking may be the more appropriate term as the size increases and
rectangular; or other special purpose structures rather than pipes required.
Pipe Jacking
• Its direct cost is usually greater than cut-and-cover, but surface
disturbance and disruption are much less in congested area, and
working area can be small
• Essential features of pipe jacking:
 Thrust pit – must be at tunnel depth and sufficient length to
accommodate the jacks, thrust ring, length of pipe, with space for
insertion and any jointing detail
- Rear wall of the pit must be adequate to take the maximum thrust
from the jacks and to spread that load into a sufficient area of ground
- The whole success of the operation may depend on having ample
jacking capacity and proper support for it
Pipe Jacking
 Jacks and thrust ring – hydraulic jack that are operating at high
pressures to achieve compactness, are installed on the floor of the pit
- May be one or more depend on the dia. of the pipe
- Symmetrically disposed and act on the rear of the pipe line through a
thrust ring designed to bear safely and evenly on the pipe end
- As whole length of the pipe is in contact with the ground, the
frictional resistance to advance increases progressively
- Possible to limit the resistance by installation of intermediate jacking
rings whereby the leading end of the pipe only is first thrust forward
and the rear part is then pushed up to it by use of pit jacks
Pipe Jacking
 Pipes – for many purposes spun concrete rings, rather thicker than
ordinary sewer pipes are suitable, with joints substantially watertight
but allowing some flexibility
- Provision for grouting may be advisable not only to seal off any
residual leakage and fill voids, but also to permit lubrication of the
sliding surface by jacking, using Bentonite slurry or other suitable
fluid
- Steel pipes of normal dia. may be employed in long lengths, but
satisfactory external protection against corrosion is difficult to ensure
because of scratching during thrusting
- Advantage: can be used as sleeves through which a smaller service
pipe is threaded
 Pipe Jacking
 Cutting shield – the minimum necessary is the provision of a sharp but robust
circular cutting edge secured to the leading pipe.
- For steel pipe, no more than the pipe itself may be necessary
- The shield may be elaborated up to :
i. the dimensions
ii. strength and complexity of a soft ground tunnel shield
iii. With hood
iv. Thrust jacks
v. Face jacks
vi. Platforms and working compartments
vii. Stiffening rings and diaphragms
viii. Pipe jacking develops to full scale tunnel jacking
Tunnel Jacking
• Limitation Factor:
1. Thrust – necessary for large bores of 1000 – 1500 tons
- Can be minimised by ensuring a smooth outer surface without lipping at
the joints and by lubrication with Bentonite slurry or at sliding surfaces
- Can be further reduced by separating thrust for the shield or cutting edge
from the friction on the lining
- Separate set of shield jacks are provided for the shield and boring machine
which may slide forward from within a protective “can” as it advances
- After advance of the shield, the “can” is in turn moved forward leaving a
rear shield, or tail, into which the lining can be shoved
- Thrust problem, is the drag exercised on the block of soil immediately
above the structure.
Tunnel Jacking
2. Size and weight of units – problems of transport and handling down
the shaft will normally impose a weight limit for each unit, possibly
up to 25T
3. Control of alignment – alignment within 1% is very difficult to
maintain in simple pipe jacking, even when initial pipe is set most
precisely
- Jacking independently at the cutting head as referred to above can
give control comparable to that of orthodox TBM, and intermediate
jacking with individually controlled jacks can help