ANCOVA

ANCOVA
ANCOVA
The one-way ANCOVA (analysis of covariance) can be
thought of as an extension of the one-way ANOVA to
incorporate a covariate
Like the one-way ANOVA, the one-way ANCOVA is

used to determine whether there are any significant
differences between two or more independent
(unrelated) groups on a dependent variable
The ANOVA looks for differences in the group means,

the ANCOVA looks for differences in adjusted
means (i.e., adjusted for the covariate)
ANCOVA
Compared to the one-way ANOVA, the one-way
ANCOVA has the additional benefit of allowing you to
"statistically control" for a third variable (sometimes
known as a "confounding variable"), which you
believe will affect your results
This third variable that could be confounding your

results is called the covariate and you include it in
your one-way ANCOVA analysis
ANCOVA
A simple example is a study looking at the effect of a training program on math
ability
• The independent variable is the training condition–whether participants

received the math training or some irrelevant training
• The dependent variable is their math score after receiving the training
• But even within each training group, there is going to be a lot of variation
in people’s math ability
• If you don’t control for that, it is just unexplained variation. Having a lot of
unexplained variation makes it pretty tough to see the actual effect of the
training–it gets lost in all the noise
• So if you use pretest math score as a covariate, you can control for where
people started out
• So you get a clearer picture of whether people do well on the final test due
to the training or due to the math ability they had coming in
ANCOVA
Researchers wanted to investigate the effect of three different types of
exercise intervention on systolic blood pressure
To do this, they recruited 60 participants to their study
They randomly allocated 20 participants to each of three interventions: a "low-

intensity exercise intervention", a "moderate-intensity exercise intervention"
and a "high-intensity exercise intervention“
The exercise in all interventions burned the same number of calories
Each participant had their "systolic blood pressure" measured before the
intervention and immediately after the intervention
The researcher wanted to know if the different exercise interventions had

different effects on systolic blood pressure
ANCOVA
To answer this question, the researchers wanted to
determine whether there were any differences in
mean systolic blood pressure after the exercise
interventions (i.e., whether post-intervention mean
systolic blood pressure different between the
different interventions)
However, the researchers expected that the impact of

the three different exercise interventions on mean
systolic blood pressure would be affected by the
participants' starting systolic blood pressure (i.e., their
systolic blood pressure before the interventions)
ANCOVA
To control the post-intervention systolic blood pressure for the
differences in pre-intervention systolic blood pressure, you can
run a one-way ANCOVA with
 pre-intervention systolic blood pressure as the covariate,
 intervention as the independent variable and
 post-intervention systolic blood pressure as the dependent
variable
If you find a statistically significant difference between

interventions, you can follow up a one-way ANCOVA with a post
hoc test to determine which specific exercise interventions
differed in terms of their effect on systolic blood pressure (e.g.,
whether the high-intensity exercise intervention had a greater
effect on systolic blood pressure than the low-intensity exercise
intervention)
ANCOVA
To control the post-intervention systolic blood pressure
for the differences in pre-intervention systolic blood
pressure, you can run a one-way ANCOVA with
• pre-intervention systolic blood pressure as the
covariate,
• intervention as the independent variable and
• post-intervention systolic blood pressure as the
dependent variable
If you find a statistically significant difference between
interventions, you can follow up a one-way ANCOVA with
a post hoc test to determine which specific exercise
interventions differed in terms of their effect on systolic
blood pressure (e.g., whether the high-intensity exercise
intervention had a greater effect on systolic blood
pressure than the low-intensity exercise intervention)
ANCOVA - Assumptions
When you choose to analyse your data using a one-way ANCOVA, part of the
process involves checking to make sure that the data you want to analyse can
actually be analysed using a one-way ANCOVA
You need to do this because it is only appropriate to use a one-way ANCOVA if

your data "passes" nine assumptions that are required for a one-way ANCOVA
to give you a valid result
Assumption #1: Your dependent variable and covariate variable(s) should be

measured on a continuous scale (i.e., they are measured at
the interval or ratio level).
Examples of variables that meet this criterion include revision time (measured
in hours), intelligence (measured using IQ score), exam performance
(measured from 0 to 100), weight (measured in kg), and so forth
You can have categorical covariates (e.g., a categorical variables such as

"gender", which has two categories: "males" and "females"), but the analysis is
not usually referred to as an ANCOVA in this situation
Assumption #2: Your independent variable should
consist of two or more categorical, independent
groups
Example independent variables that meet this

criterion include gender (e.g., two groups: male and
female), ethnicity (e.g., three groups: Caucasian,
African American and Hispanic), physical activity level
(e.g., four groups: sedentary, low, moderate and high),
profession (e.g., five groups: surgeon, doctor, nurse,
dentist, therapist), and so forth.
Assumption #3: You should have independence of
observations, which means that there is no relationship
between the observations in each group or between the groups
themselves
For example, there must be different participants in each group

with no participant being in more than one group
his is more of a study design issue than something you can test
for, but it is an important assumption of a one-way ANCOVA
If your study fails this assumption, you will need to use another
statistical test instead of a one-way ANCOVA (e.g., a repeated
measures design)
Assumption #4: There should be no significant outliers
Outliers are simply data points within your data that do
not follow the usual pattern
(e.g., in a study of 100 students' IQ scores, where the
mean score was 108 with only a small variation between
students, one student had a score of 156, which is very
unusual, and may even put her in the top 1% of IQ scores
globally)
The problem with outliers is that they can have a negative

effect on the one-way ANCOVA, reducing the validity of
your results
Assumption #5: Your residuals should
be approximately normally distributed for each
category of the independent variable
ANCOVA requires approximately normal residuals

because it is quite "robust" to violations of normality,
meaning that the assumption can be violated to a
degree and still provide valid results
Assumption #6: There needs to be homogeneity of
variances
You can test this assumption in SPSS Statistics using
Levene's test for homogeneity of variances
Statistical procedures assume that variances of the

populations from which different samples are drawn are
equal
Levene's test assesses this assumption. It tests the null

hypothesis that the population variances are equal
(called homogeneity of variance or homoscedasticity)
Assumption #7: The covariate should be linearly
related to the dependent variable at each level of
the independent variable
Describes variables that change proportionally and

are representable on a graph as a straight line
Example: There's no linear relation between

mortality and size
Assumption #8: There needs to be homoscedasticity
(having equal statistical variances)
Homoscedasticity describes a situation in which the

error term (that is, the “noise” or random disturbance
in the relationship between the independent
variables and the dependent variable) is the same
across all values of the independent variables
Assumption #9: There needs to be homogeneity of
regression slopes, which means that there is no
interaction between the covariate and the
independent variable
ANCOVA

ANCOVA

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ANCOVA

Like the one-way ANOVA, the one-way ANCOVA is

The ANOVA looks for differences in the group means,

This third variable that could be confounding your

• The independent variable is the training condition–whether participants

To do this, they recruited 60 participants to their study

They randomly allocated 20 participants to each of three interventions: a "low-

The exercise in all interventions burned the same number of calories

The researcher wanted to know if the different exercise interventions had

However, the researchers expected that the impact of

If you find a statistically significant difference between

You need to do this because it is only appropriate to use a one-way ANCOVA if

Assumption #1: Your dependent variable and covariate variable(s) should be

You can have categorical covariates (e.g., a categorical variables such as

Example independent variables that meet this

For example, there must be different participants in each group

The problem with outliers is that they can have a negative

ANCOVA requires approximately normal residuals

Statistical procedures assume that variances of the

Levene's test assesses this assumption. It tests the null

Describes variables that change proportionally and

Example: There's no linear relation between

Homoscedasticity describes a situation in which the

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