Computer Systems

A complete, working computer. Computer systems will include the computer along with any software and
peripheral devices that are necessary to make the computer function. Every computer system, for
example, requires an operating system.
Computer Architecture
computer architecture is a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and
implementation of computer systems. Some definitions of architecture define it as describing the
capabilities and programming model of a computer but not a particular implementation.
Computer is an electronic machine that makes performing any task very easy. In computer, the CPU
executes each instruction provided to it, in a series of steps, this series of steps is called Machine Cycle,
and is repeated for each instruction. One machine cycle involves fetching of instruction, decoding the
instruction, transferring the data, executing the instruction.
Computer system has five basic units that help the computer to perform operations, which are given
below:
• Input Unit
• Output Unit
• Storage Unit
• Arithmetic Logic Unit
• Control Unit
Computer Architecture Computer Organization

Computer Architecture is concerned with the way Computer Organization is concerned with the structure
hardware components are connected together to form a and behaviour of a computer system as seen by the user.
computer system.

It acts as the interface between hardware and software. It deals with the components of a connection in a system.

Computer Architecture helps us to understand the Computer Organization tells us how exactly all the units
functionalities of a system. in the system are arranged and interconnected.

A programmer can view architecture in terms of Whereas Organization expresses the realization of
instructions, addressing modes and registers. architecture.

While designing a computer system architecture is An organization is done on the basis of architecture.
considered first.

Computer Architecture deals with high-level design Computer Organization deals with low-level design
issues. issues.

Architecture involves Logic (Instruction sets, Addressing Organization involves Physical Components (Circuit
modes, Data types, Cache optimization) design, Adders, Signals, Peripherals)
Diagram of computer architecture.

REGISTERS

CONTROL UNIT
Interprets stores instructions in sequence
Issue commands to all elements of the
computer

AIRTHMETIC & LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

Performs arithmetic and logic
operations

INPUT OUTPUT

MAIN MEMORY

SECONDARY MEMORY
Input Unit
Input unit connects the external environment with internal computer system. It provides data and
instructions to the computer system. Commonly used input devices are keyboard, mouse, magnetic tape
etc.
Input unit performs following tasks:
• Accept the data and instructions from the outside environment.
• Convert it into machine language.
• Supply the converted data to computer system.
Output Unit
It connects the internal system of a computer to the external environment. It provides the results of any
computation, or instructions to the outside world. Some output devices are printers, monitor etc.
Storage Unit
This unit holds the data and instructions. It also stores the intermediate results before these are sent to
the output devices. It also stores the data for later use.
The storage unit of a computer system can be divided into two categories:
Primary Storage: This memory is used to store the data which is being currently executed. It is used for
temporary storage of data. The data is lost, when the computer is switched off. RAM is used as primary
storage memory.
Secondary Storage: The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than primary memory. It is used for
permanent storage of data. Commonly used secondary memory devices are hard disk, CD etc.
CPU
It is Central Processing Unit of the computer. The control unit and ALU
are together known as CPU. CPU is the brain of computer system. A
CPU built on a single chip is called a microprocessor. Now a day,
Microprocessor is also called processor.

It performs following tasks: Primary component of a CPU

• It performs all operations. • Register:- to store data
• It takes all decisions. • Control Unit:- it sends the information
• It controls all the units of about which task to perform.
computer. • Arithmetic logic unit :- For calculation
 Register

• Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data
and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the
CPU are often termed as Processor registers.
• A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any data (such as bit
sequence or individual characters).
• The computer needs processor registers for manipulating data and a register for holding a
memory address. The register holding the memory location is used to calculate the
address of the next instruction after the execution of the current instruction is completed.
Features of register
• They are faster memory of a computer.
• The storage capacity of register is small
• They are temporary memory of a computer.
Control Unit
the control unit is the brain of the CPU. It is situated inside a processor.

Hardware control unit Micro program control unit

• It is constructed using a digital • It is itself decodes and executes
circuits and once formed can not instruction by main of executing
be changed micro program
 Function of the Control Unit

• The control unit carry out the controlling of computer.

• It perform data processing operation
• It send control signal to various part of computer system for
controlling.
• It is gives commands to input data from input unit to memory unit to
ALU.
• It transform result from ALU to memory unit to output unit.
• It gives command to store the data, instruction and program in
memory.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit
The arithmetic logic unit carries out as the name suggests
arithmetic and logical operations on the data made available to
it. Basic arithmetic functions which an ALU can carry out are an
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The logical
operation which can it can carry out greater than, equal to less
than etc. some of the processors can also supports operations
which check if particular bits are on of off. The main
operations are summarized below.
1. It performs basic arithmetical calculations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication etc.
2. It performs logical operations such as comparing greater than,
equal to etc.
 Main Memory
Primary memory or main memory is a volatile memory of computer. As
soon as a computer starts, primary memory stores all running
applications, operating system (OS), user interface and any others.
Main memory are directly accessible to processor . The primary
memory consist of random access memory(RAM), which can handle
instruction and data at high speed. Programs are stored in main memory
while they are being executed. Data are stored only when power
supply is given to computer. Some of properties are as below:
1. It is volatile memory of computer.
2. The storage capacity of main memory is smaller than that of
secondary memory.
3. They are faster than secondary memory
 Auxiliary memory
Secondary memory of computer is use to store data for future
(permanently) so its called non-volatile memory. They are
slower access rates for greater storage capacity and data
stability. early forms of auxiliary memory storage included punch
paper tape, punch cards and magnetic drums. the purpose of
these memory is to store large amount of data for future use.
Some properties of secondary memory are :
• The storage capacity of Auxiliary memory is high.
• They are slower because they do not directly interact with
processor
• They are less expensive
• They store data for the future references.
 Processor of computer (microprocessor)
A processor is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes
the basic instructions that drive a computer. The four primary
functions of a processor are fetch, decode, execute and
writeback.
Most processors today are multi-core, which means that the IC
contains two or more processor for enhance performance.
Reduced power consumption and more efficient simultaneous
processing of multiple tasks (Parallel processing).
Functions of microprocessor
• It controls input and output devices of computer.
• It controls the storage of data inside a computer.
 Processor of computer (microprocessor)
• It performs arithmetical and logical operations of computer.
• it can process every types of data (used in computer only)
• it handles every other parts of computer.
Characteristics of Microprocessor
• instruction set: the set of instructions that the microprocessor
can execute.
• Bandwidth: the number of bits processed in a single
instruction.
• Clock speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed
determines how many instructions per second the processor
can execute.
 Types of Microprocessor
1. Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
2. Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
• RISC has simple, single-cycle instructions, which performs only
basic instructions.
• RISC architecture dose not have hardwired advanced
functions. All high-level language support is done in the
software.
• RISC has fewer instruction and requires fewer transistors,
which result is the reduced manufacturing cost of processor.
• The instruction size is fixed (32 bits). The processor need not
spend time in finding out where each instruction begins and
ends.
•RISC architecture has a reduced production cost
compared to CISC processors.
•The instructions, simple in nature, are executed in
just one clock cycle, which speeds up the program
execution when compared to CISC processor.
•RISC processors can handle multiple instructions
simultaneously by processing them in parallel.
•Apple mac G3 and PowerPC are based on RISC.
CISC (Complex instructions set computer)
• CISC architecture hardwire the processor with complex
instructions which are difficult to create otherwise using basic
instructions. CISC combines the different instruction into one
single CPU.
• CISC has a large instruction set that includes simple and fast
instructions for performing basic tasks, as well as complex
instructions that correspond to statements in the high level
language.
• An increase number of instructions (200 to 300) results in a
much more complex processor requiring millions on
transistors.
• Instructions are lengths of variable, using 8,16,32 bits for
storage. This result in the processor’s time being spent in
calculating where each instruction begins and end.
• With large number of application software programs being
written for the processor, a new processor has to be backward
compatible to the older version of processors.
• So CISC is a processor design in which single instructions can
execute several low-level operations (such as a load from
memory, and arithmetic operation, and a memory store) or are
capable of multi-step operations or addressing modes(find the
location of data) with in single instructions.
• AMD and Cyrix are based on CISC
The number of cycles per instruction
• In RISC architecture, each instruction take one clock cycle to
complete. This is due to the simplicity of the instruction.
• From other hand, the execution time for CISC architecture
ranges from 1 to 7 clock cycles per instruction.
Power consumption
• The RISC architecture consume less power compared to the
CISC architecture. This is due to the less number of transistors
used in RISC implementation.
Speed and performance
The RISC architecture is faster than the CISC architecture. This
can be seen in Apple Mac G3 which is four times faster that an
equivalent intel microprocessor.
1. Storage Device – Definition, Use, Types: Hard Disk , Floppy Disk, Magnetic Tape, Flash
Memory, Optical Disk(CD,VCD,DVD), External Storage Device
2. Input Devices – Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Light Pen, OMR, OCR, BCR, Scanner, Touch Pad
Kiosk, Microphone and Digital Camera.
3. Output Devices – Monitor, Printer, Plotter, Speaker
4. Write differentiate between computer architecture and computer organization
 peripherals
Computer peripherals are devices used to input information and instructions into a computer for
storage or processing and to output the processed data. In addition, devices that enable the
transmission and reception of data between computers are often classified as peripherals.

Interfaces or port
The word "port" is used often in the computer industry, and has many different meanings
depending on what technology is being referred to. In this section, we detail input/output (I/O)
ports. I/O ports allow for connections to hardware. This hardware could be internal or external.
The ports are associated with copper circuits and memory ranges that allow the communication
of data between the CPU, RAM, and the ports themselves. Common I/O ports include USB and
FireWire. In this section, we also discuss SCSI, audio connections, MIDI, and RG-6 coaxial ports.
Although the most important I/O port on recent systems is the USB port, you might also
encounter other ports, including legacy ports such as serial and parallel, which we speak to in
this section as well.
Parallel port
A parallel port allows lines to be connected that will enable 8 bits to be transmitted
simultaneously, like cars on an eight-line highway. Parallel lines move information faster than
serial lines do, but the can transmit information efficiently only up to 15 feet. Thus, parallel ports
are used principally for faster speed devices such as connecting printers.
Serial port
A serial port, or RS-232 port enables a line to be connected that will send bits one after the other in a
single line, like cars in a one lane highway. Serial lines are used to link slow speed devices and equipment
that is not close by. Serial ports are used principally for communications lines, modems and mice, they are
frequently labeled COM for communications.

USB
USB was designed to standardize the connection of peripherals like keyboards, pointing devices, digital
still and video cameras, printers, portable media players, disk drives and network adapters to personal
computers, both to communicate and to supply electric power. It has largely replaced interfaces such as
serial ports and parallel ports, and has become commonplace on a wide range of devices.
There are three standards types of USB ports you need to know:
1. USB 1.1
2. USB 2.0 (also called Hi-Speed USB)
3. USB 3.0 (also called SuperSpeed USB)
USB 1.1 ports run at a top speed (full-speed USB) of 12 megabits per second (Mbps), low-speed USB
devices such as a mouse or a keyboard run at 1.5Mbps, and USB 2.0 (Hi-Speed USB) ports run at a top
speed of 480Mbps. USB 2.0 ports are backward-compatible with USB 1.1 devices and speeds, and manage
multiple USB 1.1 devices better than a USB 1.1 port does. USB 3.0 ports run at a top speed of 4,800Mbps.
IEEE 1394 (FireWire)
FireWire cables, also commonly referred to as IEEE 1394 cables, are a specific type of serial bus commonly
used for high-speed and real-tie data transfer. It was developed all the way back in the 1980s by Apple,
who was the first company to actually give it its name. Other developers of the era also offered IEEE 1394
as an interface standard, though they went by different brand names like I. LINK (in the case of Sony) and
Lynx (in the case of Texas Instruments). Because Apple stuck with the standard longer than anyone else,
the name "FireWire" essentially became the defect way to refer to these cables.
SCSI
Small Computer System Interface is a set of standards for physically connecting and transferring data
between computers and peripheral devices. The SCSI standards define commands, protocols, electrical,
optical and logical interfaces. SCSI is most commonly used for hard disk drives and tape drives, but it can
connect a wide range of other devices, including scanners and CD drives, although not all controllers can
handle all devices. The SCSI standard defines command sets for specific peripheral device types; the
presence of "unknown" as one of these types means that in theory it can be used as an interface to
almost any device, but the standard is highly pragmatic and addressed toward commercial requirements.
1. High-performance and high-capacity hard drives
2. Image scanners
3. Removable-media drives such as Zip, Jaz, and Castlewood Orb
4. High-performance laser printers
5. Optical drives
6. Tape backups
software
Computer software, or simply software, is a collection of data or computer instructions that tell the computer how
to work. This is in contrast to physical hardware, from which the system is built and actually performs the work. In
computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems,
programs and data. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data,
such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither
can be realistically used on its own. There are two types of software and they are:
2 Application software
Application software is computer software designed to perform a group of coordinated
functions, tasks, or activities for the benefit of the user. Examples of an application include a
word processor, a spreadsheet, an accounting application, a web browser, a media player, an
aeronautical flight simulator, a console game or a photo editor. The collective noun application
software refers to all applications collectively. This contrasts with system software, which is
mainly involved with running the computer.
Application software can be:
1. Package software
2. Tailored software
Packaged software
Packaged software is software that is often used together, performs similar functions, or includes
similar features, and is bundled together as a set of software programs. For example, Microsoft
Office is packaged software, including multiple software programs used in a home or office, such
as Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Video and audio editing software
may be available as packaged software as well, as they may be used together for editing music
and video files used in a movie.
Some common package software are:
Antivirus software
Antivirus software, or anti-virus software, also known as anti-malware, is a computer program
used to prevent, detect, and remove malware. Antivirus software was originally developed to
detect and remove computer viruses, hence the name. However, with the proliferation of other
kinds of malware, antivirus software started to provide protection from other computer threats.
In particular, modern antivirus software can protect users from: malicious browser helper
objects, browser hijackers, ransomware, keyloggers, backdoors, rootkits, trojan horses, worms,
malicious LSPs, dialers, fraud tools, adware and spyware. Some products also include protection
from other computer threats, such as infected and malicious URLs, spam, scam and phishing
attacks, online identity, online banking attacks, social engineering techniques, advanced
persistent threat and botnet DDoS attacks.
Some known and popular antivirus software are kasper-sky, Norton, avira, avast,AVG etc