Ch6 Perception & Decision Making OB - Robbins

Chapter 5
Perception and
Individual Decision
Making
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
S T E P H E N P. R O B B I N S
E L E V E N T H E D I T I O N
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. WWW.PRENHALL.COM/ROBBINS PowerPoint Presentation
All rights reserved. by Charlie Cook
What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?
Perception
A process by which • People’s behavior is
individuals organize and based on their
interpret their sensory perception of what
impressions in order to reality is, not on
give meaning to their reality itself.
environment.
• The world as it is
perceived is the world
that is behaviorally
important.
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 5–2

Person Perception: Making Judgments About
Others
Attribution Theory
When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to
determine whether it is internally or externally
caused.
Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.

Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.
Consistency: responds in the same way over time.

Errors and Biases in Attributions
Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of
internal factors when making judgments about the
behavior of others.

Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency for individuals to attribute their own
successes to internal factors while putting the blame
for failures on external factors.

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see on the
basis of their interests, background, experience,
and attitudes.

Halo Effect
Drawing a general impression about an individual on
the basis of a single characteristic
Contrast Effects
Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that
are affected by comparisons with other
people recently encountered who rank higher
or lower on the same characteristics.

Projection
Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.
Stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of
the group to which that person belongs.

Specific Applications in Organizations
 Employment Interview
– Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of
interviewers’ judgments of applicants.
 Performance Expectations
– Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect): The lower or
higher performance of employees reflects preconceived
leader expectations about employee capabilities.
 Ethnic Profiling
– A form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals
is singled out—typically on the basis of race or
ethnicity—for intensive inquiry, scrutinizing, or
investigation.

Specific Applications in Organizations (cont’d)
 Performance Evaluations
– Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental)
perceptions of appraisers of another employee’s job
performance.
 Employee Effort
– Assessment of individual effort is a subjective
judgment subject to perceptual distortion and bias.

The Link Between Perceptions and Individual
Decision Making
Problem
A perceived discrepancy
between the current state of
affairs and a desired state. Perception
of the
decision
Decisions maker
Choices made from among
alternatives developed from
data perceived as relevant.
Outcomes

Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making
Model
Rational Decision- Model Assumptions

Making Model
• Problem clarity
Describes how
• Known options
individuals should
behave in order to • Clear preferences
maximize some • Constant
outcome. preferences
• No time or cost
constraints
• Maximum payoff

The Three Components of Creativity
Creativity
The ability to produce novel and useful ideas.
Three-Component
Model of Creativity
Proposition that individual creativity requires
expertise, creative-thinking skills, and intrinsic task
motivation.

How Are Decisions Actually Made in
Organizations
Bounded Rationality
Individuals make decisions by constructing simplified
models that extract the essential features from
problems without capturing all their complexity.

How Are Decisions Actually Made in
Organizations (cont’d)
 How/Why problems are identified

– Visibility over importance of problem
• Attention-catching, high profile problems
• Desire to “solve problems”
– Self-interest (if problem concerns decision maker)
 Alternative Development
– Satisficing: seeking the first alternative that solves
problem.
– Engaging in incremental rather than unique problem
solving through successive limited comparison of
alternatives to the current alternative in effect.

Common Biases and Errors
 Overconfidence Bias
– Believing too much in our own decision competencies.
 Anchoring Bias
– Fixating on early, first received information.
 Confirmation Bias
– Using only the facts that support our decision.
 Availability Bias
– Using information that is most readily at hand.
 Representative Bias
– Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by trying to
match it with a preexisting category.

Common Biases and Errors
 Escalation of Commitment
– Increasing commitment to a previous decision in spite
of negative information.
 Randomness Error
– Trying to create meaning out of random events by
falling prey to a false sense of control or superstitions.
 Hindsight Bias
– Falsely believing to have accurately predicted the
outcome of an event, after that outcome is actually
known.

Intuition
 Intuitive Decision Making
– An unconscious process created out of distilled
experience.
 Conditions Favoring Intuitive Decision Making
– A high level of uncertainty exists
– There is little precedent to draw on
– Variables are less scientifically predictable
– “Facts” are limited
– Facts don’t clearly point the way
– Analytical data are of little use
– Several plausible alternative solutions exist
– Time is limited and pressing for the right decision

Reducing Biases and Errors
 Focus on Goals. Without goals, you can’t be rational, you don’t know what information you
need, you don’t know which information is relevant and which is irrelevant, you’ll find it
difficult to choose between alternatives, and you’re far more likely to experience regret over
the choices you make. Clear goals make decision making easier and help you eliminate
options that are inconsistent with your interests.
 Look for Information That Disconfirms Your Beliefs. One of the most effective means for
counteracting overconfidence and the confirmation and hindsight biases is to actively look for
information that contradicts your beliefs and assumptions. When we overtly consider various
ways we could be wrong, we challenge our tendencies to think we’re smarter than we actually
are.
 Don’t Try to Create Meaning out of Random Events. The educated mind has been
trained to look for cause-and-effect relationships. When something happens, we ask why. And
when we can’t find reasons, we often invent them. You have to accept that there are events in
life that are outside your control. Ask yourself if patterns can be meaningfully explained or
whether they are merely coincidence. Don’t attempt to create meaning out of coincidence.
 Increase Your Options. No matter how many options you’ve identified, your final choice
can be no better than the best of the option set you’ve selected. This argues for increasing
your decision alternatives and for using creativity in developing a wide range of diverse
choices. The more alternatives you can generate, and the more diverse those alternatives, the
greater your chance of finding an outstanding one.

Organizational Constraints on Decision Makers
 Performance Evaluation
– Evaluation criteria influence the choice of actions.
 Reward Systems
– Decision makers make action choices that are favored
by the organization.
 Formal Regulations
– Organizational rules and policies limit the alternative
choices of decision makers.
 System-imposed Time Constraints
– Organizations require decisions by specific deadlines.
 Historical Precedents
– Past decisions influence current decisions.

Cultural Differences in Decision Making
 Problems selected
 Time orientation
 Importance of logic and rationality
 Belief in the ability of people to solve problems
 Preference for collect decision making

Ethics in Decision Making
 Ethical Decision Criteria
– Utilitarianism
• Seeking the greatest good for the greatest number.
– Rights
• Respecting and protecting basic rights of individuals
such as whistleblowers.
– Justice
• Imposing and enforcing rules fairly and impartially.

Ethics in Decision Making
 Ethics and National Culture
– There are no global ethical standards.
– The ethical principles of global organizations that
reflect and respect local cultural norms are necessary
for high standards and consistent practices.

Ways to Improve Decision Making
1. Analyze the situation and adjust your decision
making style to fit the situation.
2. Be aware of biases and try to limit their impact.
3. Combine rational analysis with intuition to
increase decision-making effectiveness.
4. Don’t assume that your specific decision style is
appropriate to every situation.
5. Enhance personal creativity by looking for novel
solutions or seeing problems in new ways, and
using analogies.

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Chapter 5

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Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.

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Fundamental Attribution Error

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Rational Decision- Model Assumptions

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 How/Why problems are identified

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