ECE 201: Electronics I

Semiconductors, PN Junction
and Diodes

Lecture 4

Dr:- Rania A. Abul Seoud

r-abulseoud@k-space.org
ZENER DIODES
 What is a Zener Diode?
Diodes operating in the reverse breakdown
region, are called breakdown diodes or, more
commonly, zener diodes.
A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which
permits current to flow in the forward direction as
normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse
direction when the voltage is above a certain
value - the breakdown voltage known as the
Zener voltage.
The diode i-v characteristics in
the breakdown region

Figure 3.20 Circuit

symbol for a zener
diode.

Figure 3.22
Model for the
zener diode.
 ZENER DIODES

In normal applications of
zener diodes, current
flows into the cathode,
and the cathode is
positive with respect to
the anode.
Thus Iz and Vz have
positive values.
 Specifying and Modeling the
Zener Diode
We observe that for
currents greater than the
knee current IZK (specified on
the data sheet of the zener
diode), the i-v characteristic
is almost a straight line.
line
The manufacturer usually
specifies the voltage across
the zener diode Vz at a
specified test current, IZT. 
the coordinates of the point
labeled Q.
 Specifying and Modeling the
Zener Diode
Thus a 6.8-V zener diode
will exhibit at 6.8-V drop at
a specified test current of,
say, 10 mA.
As the current through the
zener deviates from IZT, the
voltage across it will
change, though only
slightly.
slightly
Corresponding to current
change ΔI the zener voltage
changes by Δ V, which is
related to ΔI by Δ V = rz Δ I
 Modeling the Zener Diode
rz is the inverse of the slope
of the almost-linear i—v
curve at point Q.
rz is the incremental
resistance of the zener
diode at operating point Q.
It is also known as the
dynamic resistance of the
zener, and its value is
specified on the device data
sheet.
rz, is in the range of a few
ohms to a few tens of ohms.
 Modeling the Zener Diode

The almost-linear i-v characteristic of

the zener diode suggests that the device
can be modeled as indicated .
Here V zo denotes the point at which the
straight line of slope 1/r, intersects the
voltage axis.
The equivalent circuit model can be
analytically described by V z = V zo + rzIz
and it applies for Iz > IZK and, obviously,
Vz > VZo.
 Modeling the Zener Diode

The lower the value of rz is,

the more constant the zener
voltage remains as its current
varies and thus the more ideal
its performance becomes in
the design of voltage
regulators.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 Use of the Diode Forward Drop
in Voltage Regulation
A further application of the diode small-signal model
is the use of diodes to create a regulated voltage.
A voltage regulator is a circuit whose purpose is
to provide a constant dc voltage between its
output terminals.
The output voltage is required to remain as
constant as possible in spite of :-
A.changes in the load current drawn from the regulator
output terminal
B.changes in the dc power-supply voltage that feeds the
regulator circuit..
 Use of the Diode Forward Drop
in Voltage Regulation
Since the forward voltage drop of the diode ~ 0.7 V
while the current through it varies by relatively
large amounts, a forward-biased diode can make a
simple voltage regulator.
regulator
Regulated voltages greater
than 0.7 V can be obtained by
connecting a number of diodes
in series.
Ex. Use three forward-biased
diodes in series provides a
voltage of about 2 V.
 Example
A string of three diodes is used to provide a
constant V; Voltage of about 2.1 V.
We want to calculate the percentage change in this
regulated voltage caused by :-
A. a ±10% change in the power-
supply voltage
B. Connection of a 1-kΩ load
resistance.
Assume n = 2.
 Solution
With no load, the nominal value of the current in the
diode string is given byI =(10-2.1)/1= 7.9 mA
Thus each diode will have an incremental
resistance of rd=nVT/I  n = 2

The three diodes in series will

have a total incremental
resistance of r = 3rd = 18.9 Ω
r along with the resistance R,
forms a voltage divider whose
ratio can be used to calculate
the change in output voltage
due to a ±10% (i.e., ±1-V)
change in supply voltage.
 Solution
Thus the peak-to-peak change in output voltage
will be

±10% (i.e., ±1-V) in Vin  Vin1 = 11 or Vin2 = 9

ΔVo = Vo(at Vin1) – Vo(at Vin2)
ΔVo = Vin1 [r/(R+r)] – Vin2r/(R+r)] = Vin1– Vin2[r/(R+r)]
ΔVo = Δ Vin [r/(R+r)]
ΔVo = 11 [r/(R+r)] – 9 [r/(R+r)]
•That is, corresponding to the +1-V
ΔVo =2[r/(R+r)]
(±10%) change in supply voltage,
the output voltage will change by
37.1mV/2 = ±18.5 mV or ±0.9%.
 Solution
a change of about ±6.2 mV(+18.5 mV/3 ) per diode,
our use of the small-signal model is justified.
When a load resistance of 1 kΩ is connected across
the diode string, it draws a current of approximately
IR = 2.1/1KΩ = 2.1 mA.

Thus the current in the diodes

decreases by 2.1 mA, resulting
in a decrease in voltage across
the diode string given by ΔVo =
ΔIZ r  ΔV0 = -2.1 x r = -2.1 x
18.9 = -39.7 mV
 Solution
Since this implies that the voltage across each
diode decreases by about 13.2 mV, our use of the
small-signal model is not entirely justified.
Nevertheless, a detailed calculation of the voltage
change using the exponential model results in
ΔV0= - 35.5 mV, which is not too different from the
approximate value obtained using the incremental
model.
 Zener-Voltage Regulators

Voltage regulators are circuits that provide

constant dc output voltages in the face of
changes in their load current and in the
system power-supply voltage.
This in fact turns out to be an important
application of diodes operating in the
reverse breakdown region,
region and special
diodes are manufactured to operate
specifically in the breakdown region.
 OPERATION IN THE REVERSE
BREAKDOWN REGION
The very steep i-v curve that the
diode exhibits in the breakdown
region and the almost-constant
voltage drop that this indicates
suggest that diodes operating
in the breakdown region can be
used in the design of voltage
regulators.
regulators
 Use of the Zener as a Shunt
Regulator
Zener diodes are used in the design of shunt
regulators,
regulators so named because the regulator circuit
appears in parallel (shunt) with the load.

21
 Voltage Regulator
Using a resistor to ensure that the current passing
through the Zener diode is at least 5mA (0.005 Amps), the
circuit designer knows that the voltage drop across the
diode is exactly equal to the Zener voltage of the diode.
RS is to limit the zener current, IZ so that it is less than
the maximum current, IZM (to avoid the zener diode
from broken).
RS RS

+ +
+ +
VZ VZ RL
VS VS
- -
- -

A simple regulator circuit A regulator circuit with load resistance

 Example
A 5.0V stabilized power supply is required to be produced
from a 12V DC power supply input source. The maximum
power rating PZ of the zener diode is 2W. Using the zener
regulator circuit above calculate:
a) The maximum current flowing through the zener diode.
b) The value of the series resistor, RS

c) The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected

across the Zener diode.

d) The total supply current IS

 Voltage Regulator
How to determine whether the zener acts as
a regulator or not??
– Use Thevenin Theorem
– See example
If VTH<VZ, regulation does not occur.
Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
 Zener I-V Charateristic

Reverse Reverse
breakdown biased
region region
 Voltage Regulator….
if the voltage across the zener diode zener is between
0-VZK, the zener diode is operating in the reverse bias
region,
region thus it DOES NOT functioned as a regulator.

VTH must at least the same

value as VZ (VTH  VZ) so that
the diode CAN function as a
voltage regulator because it
is operating in reverse
breakdown region.
 Zener Diode Regulator
• The zener diode will “adjust” its impedance based
on varying input voltages and loads (RL) to be able
to maintain its designated zener voltage.
• Zener current will increase or decrease directly with
voltage input changes.
• The zener current will increase or decrease
inversely with varying loads.
• Zener has a finite range
of operation.
Examples of Zener as
Voltage Regulator

Cases in Zener
Regulator Circuits
 Zener Diode

Three types of Zener analysis

– Fixed VS and RL
– Fixed VS and variable RL
– Variable VS and fixed RL
 Basic Zener Regulator
1- Fixed Vi and RL
Step 1:
Determine the state of the Zener
diode by removing it from the
network and calculating the
voltage across the resulting
open circuit
If V>Vz, the Zener diode is "on"
on
else the Zener diode is "off"
RLVi
V  VL 
R  RL 31
 Basic Zener Regulator
1- Fixed Vi and RL
Step 2:
Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and
solve for the desired unknowns
If the Zener is on, then VL=Vz Iz=IR-IL
The power dissipated by the Zener diode is Pz= Vz
Iz which must be less than the
PZM specified for the device.

32
 Zener Diode
1- Fixed Vi and RL
The applied dc voltage is fixed, as the load resistor.
The analysis :
1. Determine the state of the Zener diode by removing it
from the network and calculating the voltage across the
resulting open circuit.
 Zener Diode
2. Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and
solve for the desired unknowns.

- For the on state diode, the voltages across parallel

elements must be the same. VL=VZ
The Zener diode current is determined by KCL: IZ = IR – IL
The power dissipated by the Zener diode is determined
by: PZ = VZ IZ
- For the off state diode, the equivalent circuit is open-
circuit.
 Example

A. For the Zener diode network shown,

determine VL, VR, Iz, and Pz.-Vz=10 V
B. Repeat part (a) with RL = 3 kΩ.

35
 Solution
RLVi
(a) V  8.73 V
R  RL
Since V<Vz then the
diode is off and the
circuit becomes

VL  V  8.73 V
VR  Vi  VL  7.27 V
IZ  0 A
PZ  VZ I Z  0 W 36
 RLVi
(b) RL = 3 kΩ. V  12 V
R  RL

Now the diode is on

and the circuit becomes

VL  VZ  10 V
VR  Vi  VL  6 V
I Z  I R  I L  2.67 mA
PZ  VZ I Z  26.7 W 37
2- Fixed Vi, variable RL

Step 1- get the RLmin so that zener is on.

The minimum load resistance that will turn the
Zener diode on :
RLVs RSVZ
VL  RL min 
RS  RL VS  VZ

RVZ
RL min 
Vi  VZ
- if RL ≥ RLmin, zener diode ‘on’, so that VL=VZ 38
 Zener Diode
- 2- Fixed VS and Variable RL
Rs

+
Vs
-

Step 2: Calculate the IZ using KCL: 2 condition

In this case the load current is maximum
VL VZ
I L max  
RL RL min
1. If RLmin , then ILmax and IZmin because of constant I1
2. If RLmax, then ILmin and IZmax
 2- Fixed Vi, variable RL

Once the diode is on we have

VR  Vi  VZ
VR
IR 
R
IZ  IR  IL 40
 Zener Diode
2- Fixed Vi, variable RL
I L min  I R  I ZM
Since Iz is limited to l as provided
ZM

on the data sheet, it does affect VZ

RL max 
the range of R and therefore IL.
L I L max
I Z min or max  I1constant  I L max or min
; Izmax taken from data sheet
Izmin = 0, if not given

V  V V VZ
Where I  S Z and I L max  Z or RL max 
1
RS RL min I L min
 Example
A. For the network shown, determine the range
of RL and IL that will result in Vz being
maintained at 10 V
B. Determine the maximum wattage rating of the
diode

42
 Solution
RVZ
(a) RL min   250 (b) Pmax  VZ I ZM  320mW
Vi  VZ

VR  Vi  VZ  40V
VR
IR   40mA
R

I L min  I R  I ZM  8mA
VZ
RL max   1.25k
I L max
43
 Zener Diode
- 3-Variable VS and fixed RL

Step 1- get the VSmin so that zener is on.

For fixed value of R , Vi must be sufficiently large to
L

turn the Zener diode on

RLVs ( RL  RS )VZ
VL  VS min 
R R RL
S L

( RL  R )VZ
Vi min 
RL
if VS ≥ VSmin, zener diode will ‘on’, so that VL=VZ
 3-Fixed RL , variable Vi
Step 2: Calculate the IZ using KCL: 2 condition
Vi is also limited to a I R max  I ZM  I L
maximum value limited by
IZM Vi max  I R max R  VZ
Rs

+
Vs
-

1. if VSmin , then I1min and IZmin because of constant IL

2. if VSmax, thenI1max and IZmax 45
 Zener Diode
- 3-Variable VS and fixed RL
I Z min or max  I1min or max  I Lconstant
; Izmax= Pzmax/Vz

VL VS min  VZ
where I L  R and I1min 
RS
or VS max  I1max RS  VZ
L
 Example
Determine the range of values of Vi that will
maintain the Zener diode in the "on" state

47
 Solution

( RL  R)VZ
Vi min   23.67V
RL

I R max  I ZM  I L  76.67 mA
Vi max  I R max R  VZ  36.87V

48
 Example
The 6.8 V zener diode in this circuit is specified to
have Vz= 6.8 V at Iz= 5 mA, rz= 20 Ω and IZK= 0.2 mA.
The supply voltage V+ is nominally 10 V but can
vary by ±1 V.

A. Find V0 with no load and with V+

at its nominal value.
B. Find the change in V0 resulting
from the ± 1-V change in V+ .
Note that (ΔV0/ΔV+ ) usually
expressed in mV/V, is known as
line regulation.
 Example
C. Find the change in V0 resulting from connecting a
load resistance RL that draws a current lL = 1 mA,
and hence find the load regulation (ΔV0/ΔIL) in
mV/mA.
D. Find the change in V0 when RL
= 2 kΩ.
E. Find the value of V0 when RL =
0.5 kΩ.
F. What is the minimum value of
RL for which the diode still
operates in the breakdown
region?
 SOLUTION
First we must determine the value of the parameter V z0
of the zener diode model.
Substituting Vz = 6.8, IZ= 5mA, and rZ = 20 Ω in Vz
= V zo + rzIz yields Vzo = 6.7 V.
Replaced the zener diode with its model
 SOLUTION
(a) With no load connected, the current through the
zener is given by
 SOLUTION

(b)For a ±1-V change in V+ the change in output

voltage can be found from

ΔVo = Δ Vin [r/(R+r)]

Thus line regulation = (ΔV 0/ΔV+ ) in mV/V, is 

 Example
C. Find the change in V0 resulting from connecting a
load resistance RL that draws a current lL = 1 mA,
and hence find the load regulation (ΔV0/ΔIL) in
mV/mA.
 SOLUTION

(c) When a load resistance RL that draws a load

current IL = 1 mA is connected, the zener current
will decrease by 1 mA.
The corresponding change in zener voltage can be
found from

Thus the load regulation (ΔV0/ΔIL) in mV/mA is

 Example

D. Find the change in V0 when RL

= 2 kΩ.
 SOLUTION
(d) When a load resistance of 2 kΩ is connected, the
load current will be approximately 6.8 V/2 kΩ = 3.4
mA. Thus the change in zener current will be ΔIZ =
- 3.4 mA, and the corresponding change in zener
voltage (output voltage) will thus be

This calculation, however, is approximate,

because it neglects the change in the current /.
A more accurate estimate of ΔV0 can be obtained
by analyzing the circuit in Fig. 3.23(b). The result
of such an analysis is ΔV0 = - 70 mV.
 Example

E. Find the value of V0 when RL =

0.5 kΩ.
 SOLUTION
(e) An RL of 0.5 kΩ would draw a load current of
6.8/0.5 = 13.6 mA. This is not possible, because
the current I supplied through R is only 6.4 mA (for
V+ = 10 V). Therefore, the zener must be cut off.
If this is indeed the case, then V0 is determined by
the voltage divider formed by RL and R,

Since this voltage is lower than the breakdown

voltage of the zener, the diode is indeed no longer
operating in the breakdown region.
 Example

F. What is the minimum value of

RL for which the diode still
operates in the breakdown
region?
 SOLUTION

(f) For the zener to be at the edge of the

breakdown region, IZ = IZK = 0.2 mA and Vz ~VZK
= 6.7 V.
At this point the lowest (worst-case) current
supplied through R is (9 - 6.7)/0.5 = 4.6 mA,
and thus the load current is 4.6 - 0.2 = 4.4 mA.
The corresponding value of RL is
Series Zener diodes

As long as Vi is greater
than the sum of VZ1 and
VZ2, both diodes will be
in the "on" state and the
three reference voltages
will be available

62
Back-to back-Zener diodes

63
 IC Regulator
The 78xx (also sometimes known as LM78xx) series of devices is a
family of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator IC. The 78xx
family is a very popular choice for many electronic circuits which
require a regulated power supply, due to:
i. ease of use and
ii. Low cost.
 78xx and 79xx IC
When specifying individual ICs within this family, the xx
is replaced with a two-digit number, which indicates
the output voltage the particular device is designed to
provide (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output,
while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line are
positive voltage regulators, meaning that they are
designed to produce a voltage that is positive relative
to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx
devices which are complementary negative voltage
regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in
combination to provide both positive and negative
supply voltages in the same circuit, if necessary.