Introduction to Plasma

• What is a plasma?
– The “fourth state of matter”
– A partially ionized gas
• How is a plasma created?
– Energy must be added to a gas in the form of:
• Heat: Temperatures must be in excess of 4000 OC
• Radiation
• Electric Field
• Magnetic Field
• Examples of Common Plasmas:
– Stars are almost entirely composed of plasma
• this makes plasma the dominant state of matter in the
universe
– Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights), Lightning
Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak
Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• In practice, a plasma is a
gaseous medium containing:
– neutral gas atoms or molecules
– ions (atoms with a charge)
– free radicals (highly reactive
molecules)
– electrons
– photons (massless particles of light)
• The net charge is zero:
# of positively charged particles =
# of negatively charged particles

• The Relative number of charged species is very low:

– ~ 1,000,000 neutral particles for every charged particle (ion)

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Glow Discharge:
– A plasma is identified by a visible glow.
– The color of the glow is dependent on the gasses present in
the chamber.

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Why Plasma?
– Light Generation: Fluorescent light bulbs, Neon lights.
– Low Temperature Chemical Reactions
– Creation of Unique Materials
• that could not be accomplished via ordinary chemical means.
– Accelerated Chemical Reactions for greater throughput processing.
– Highly Directional Processes: anisotropic etching.
– More Efficient Energy Utilization
– Less Waste Product Generation

• Industrial Applications:
– Aerospace industry
– Communications industry
– Public utilities
– Wide variety of manufacturing industries
Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak
Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Plasma Formation:
1. begins with neutral gas particles (atoms or molecules)
2. there are also some free electrons present
• the presence of heat energy generates more free
electrons
3. an electric field is introduced that accelerates the free
electrons
4. the accelerated free electrons collide with neutral gas
molecules
5. following the collision, one of three things can happen:
a. dissociation
b. ionization
c. excitation

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Dissociation: (plasma chemistry)
– Gas molecules are broken down into smaller fragments called
“Free Radicals”:
• M + e- => M1 + M2 + e-
– Free radicals are high-energy chemical species.
– Although they are electrically neutral, they are unstable.
– They readily react with other substances in order to achieve a
more stable configuration.

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Dissociation:
– In the example shown, the free radical Cl is generated. The
stable state of chlorine is Cl2.

– Since Cl (by itself) is

unstable, it readily reacts
with aluminum as follows:

– Al(s) + 3Cl(g)  AlCl3 (g)

– This is an aluminum etch

process.

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Dissociation:
– The reverse process of Dissociation is called Recombination.
– If they are not “used up” in other chemical reactions, the free
radicals will spontaneously recombine to resume their more stable
states:
• CCl3 + Cl  CCl4

– Free Radicals are the useful products of a plasma that are used in:
• Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD)
– outcome of the chemical reaction is a solid
• Plasma Etching and Plasma Cleaning
– outcome of the chemical reaction is a vapor

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Ionization:
– Electron(s) are knocked loose from a neutral atom or molecule
• M + e- => M+ + 2e-

– The resultant positively

charged particles are
called “ions.”

– Since they carry an

electric charge, ions can
be manipulated by an
electric field.

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Ionization:
– As an example, in a typical sputtering operation, Argon (Ar) gas is
introduced into a vacuum chamber. A plasma is then ignited.
– The ionization process that occurs is described by the equation:
• e- + Ar  2e- + Ar+

– The positive argon ions

are attracted to the
negatively charged target
in a sputtering system.

– When they strike the

target, a vapor is created
that deposits on the wafer.
Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak
Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Impact Ionization:
– In the equation on the previous slide, it should be noted that there
are now TWO free electrons, following the collision.

– This doubles the

available electrons
for ionization.

– This ongoing
doubling process is
called "impact
ionization”.

– Impact ionization is
what sustains a
plasma.
Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak
Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Ionization:
– The reverse process of Ionization is also called Recombination.
– If they are not absorbed by the wafer or target, the ions will
spontaneously recombine to become neutral atoms again.
• e- + Ar+  Ar

– Ions are the useful products of a plasma that are used in:
• Sputter Deposition
• Reactive Ion (highly directional) Etching
• Ion Implantation

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Ionization:
– Different gasses ionize more readily than others.
– As such, some gas plasmas are harder to strike than others.

Element Ionization Energy (kJ/mol)

Hydrogen 1,312
Helium 2,372
Nitrogen 1,402
Oxygen 1,314
Fluorine 1,681
Neon 2,081
Chlorine 1,251
Argon 1,520

– So a helium plasma requires nearly twice as much energy to strike

as a chlorine plasma!
Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak
Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Dissociation + Ionization:
– For more complex molecules, a combination of dissociation and
ionization can take place.

– For example, CH4 (methane) can dissociate in a plasma yielding:

• CH3, CH2, CH, H, and C
• All of which are free radicals, except for carbon.

– OR, methane can ionize in a plasma yielding:

• CH4+, CH3+, CH2+, CH+, H+, H–, C+, and C++

– In a methane plasma, all of these products (and others) are

generated simultaneously.

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Excitation:
– Following electron impact, the molecules hold together, but they absorb
energy and enter an excited state – called “metastable” (F* for fluorine).
– Valence electrons are bumped up to a higher energy level (shell).

– After a few nanoseconds,

these excited electrons
relax back to the valence
band.

– This is called “Relaxation”.

– The additional energy

acquired is “dumped”, and
a photon of light is emitted.

– This is what gives a

plasma its glow.
Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak
Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Glow Discharge Color:
– Different gasses, when excited, will glow with different colors.
• Nitrogen glows purple, Helium glows blue, Sodium glows
yellow, Boron glows green, Neon glows red. (neon lamps!)
– The color of the glow (the wavelength) is related to the energy
lost during relaxation by:
• E = hc / l
– E is the photon energy in Joules
– h is Planck's constant (6.6 x 10-34 Joule-seconds)
– c is the speed of light (3 x 108 meters per second)
– l is the wavelength in meters
– This property enables the use of spectral analysis to obtain
detailed information about the nature of the gasses that make up
the plasma.
• Example: Endpoint detection in a plasma etch process.
Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak
Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Other Reactions in a Plasma:
– The three reactions discussed so far (dissociation,
ionization, and excitation) occur initially due to
electron collisions.
– These are called “Electron-Induced Reactions”.
– The products of each of these reactions can also
become “colliders” initiating other types of reactions:
• Photon-Induced Reactions
• Ion-Induced Reactions
• Atomic or Molecular Reactions
– Each of the above reactions will produce more ions,
free radicals, and photons.1

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Semiconductor Applications of Plasma
• Etching:
• Wet Etch
– only features > 3m
– isotropic (sloped walls)
– more contamination issues
– greater resist lifting (undercut)
– environmental impact
• Dry (Plasma) Etch
– submicron features
– anisotropic (straight walls)
– less contamination issues
– less resist lifting (less undercut)
– lower environmental impact
– endpoint detection capability

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Semiconductor Applications of Plasma
• Chemical Vapor Deposition:
• Low Pressure CVD vs. Plasma Enhanced CVD
• high temperature reaction lower temperature reactions
• slower deposition rate faster deposition rate
• more hazardous gasses less hazardous gasses
• deposition on chamber walls less deposition on chamber walls

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Semiconductor Applications of Plasma
• Metal Deposition:
• Evaporation vs. Sputtering
• point-like source planar source (imp. step coverage)
• difficult to do alloys easy to do alloys
• small/many grain structures large/fewer grain structures
• electromigration issues fewer electromigration issues
• poor adhesion improved adhesion

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Semiconductor Applications of Plasma
• Doping:
• Thermal Diffusion vs. Ion Implantation
• very high temperature low temperature
• difficult to control very controllable
• only one basic doping profile custom (retrograde) doping profiles

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Plasma Types: (determined by gasses used and DC bias)

Physical Chemical
Ionization => ions Dissociation => free radicals
Directional (anisotropic) Non-Directional (isotropic)
Not selective (no chemistry) Highly selective
DC Bias plays an important role DC Bias has no impact
PVD, Sputter Etch, Implant CVD, Plasma Strip, Plasma Clean

Combined (Physical + Chemical)

Reactive Ion Etch
CVD Dep/Etch
Reactive Sputtering

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Plasma Ignition:
– Plasmas can be generated wherever the following conditions
exist:
• Power: an electric field (AC or DC) of sufficient energy to
accelerate electrons to begin impact ionization.
• Pressure: sufficient molecular density (pressure) to provide an
adequate number of collisions, but . . .
– low enough molecular density to create a sufficient mean
free path that allows particles to accelerate before
colliding.
– Therefore, there is a pressure “sweet spot” at which point
conditions are optimal for striking a plasma.
– The relationship between pressure and ignition power
(voltage) is called the “Paschen Curve”.

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Plasma Ignition:

Sweet Spot

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Plasma Ignition:
– Additional Factors that Affect Plasma Ignition:
• ionization potential of the gas (some gasses are harder
to ionize than others)
• AC power frequency
• temperature
• chamber and electrode geometries

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Plasma Ignition:
• Ignition Process: (voltage vs. current curve)
– Region 1 - Initial Increase: Voltage is increased to the ignition
voltage. Up to this point, there is little detectable current.
– Region 2 - Negative Impedance: Once ignition occurs,
electrons avalanche (similar to a short circuit).
• Voltage decreases rapidly while current continues to
increase.
• This sends energy back into the RF generator and RF
match.
• RF components must be designed to handle this energy
spike.
– Region 3 - Steady State: Plasma reaches steady state.
Increase in voltage yields linear increase in ion current.
Plasma grows brighter. Processing rates increase linearly.
Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak
Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Plasma Ignition:
• Voltage and Current Characteristics:

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• DC Plasmas:
• A DC (constant)
voltage is applied to
two parallel plates
(or electrodes:
“cathode” (negative
polarity) and “anode”
(positive polarity)
• The glow discharge
divides itself into the
following regions
between the cathode
(-) and the anode
(+):

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• DC Plasmas Regions:
– Glow Regions:
• multiple ionizations/recombinations and
excitations/relaxations cause the bright glow
• color of the glow is characteristic of the gas being used
• note: relatively little “work” (i.e. etching) is accomplished in
the glow regions
– Dark Spaces:
• large voltage drops cause ions to travel rapidly
• little recombination occurs, hence no glow
• most of the “work” is accomplished in these areas

– As the distance between the electrodes decreases, the positive

column disappears completely, followed by the negative glow.
Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak
Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Sheath Formation in a DC Plasmas:
• If an electrically insulated object (such as a wafer) is placed within a
plasma, it will begin to build up a negative charge.
– This is due to the higher velocity of electrons vs. ions (~1000x).

• The negative charge will act as a repelling force to any additional

incoming electrons.

• This will create a positively

charged space around the
object known as a dark space
sheath.

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• Arcing in a Plasma:
– An arc is NOT a glow discharge.
– An arc IS a low-resistance breakdown of the dielectric space between the
two electrodes.
– It occurs at high pressure and high voltage.
– The electrode surface partially vaporizes, and the metal vapor becomes
the main conductor.
– An arc will divert current from the glow
discharge, nullifying much of the desired
results of the plasma.
– Whenever an arc is observed in a
plasma system, the system should be
shut down immediately!
– Sodium vapor and mercury vapor lamps
are examples of USEFUL arc discharges.

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy
 Introduction to Plasma
• References:
– 1. Hata, David M. (2004) Introduction to Plasma Technology: A
Technician’s Perspective. Portland Community College

Fall 2004 Semitec 215 Jozwiak

Plasma and RF Energy