P 62

Electric Forces and Fields
Key contents
Electric charge
Conductors
Coulomb’s law
Charge is quantized.
Charge is conserved.
Evidence of Electric Forces:
THE OBSERVATIONAL FACTS
- The discovery of electricity
is generally credited to the
Greeks and is thought to have
occurred around 2500 years
ago.
- Many of their observations
made use of a material called
amber.
- The Greeks found out that
when amber is rubbed with a
piece of animal fur, it can
attract small pieces of dust.
KEY FACTS
- There are two types of electric charge,

called positive and negative.
- Charge comes in quantized unit
- Like charges repel each other; unlike

charges attracts.
- Charge is conserved.
What is an Electric Charge?
It is the basic property of
matter and the foundation for
electricity
The amount of charge that is

“on” or “carried by” a
particle determines how the
particle reacts to electric and
magnetic fields.
Electric Charge:
In the SI system of units,

charge is measured in
coulumbs (C) in honor of
French physicist Charles
de Coulumb (1736-1806).
Conductors and Insulators
Conductors are materials through which charge can

move freely; examples include metals (such as copper in
common lamp wire), the human body, and tap water.
Nonconductors—also called insulators—are materials

through which charge cannot move freely; examples
include rubber, plastic, glass, and chemically pure water.
Semiconductors are materials that are intermediate

between conductors and insulators; examples include
silicon and germanium in computer chips.
Superconductors are materials that are perfect

conductors, allowing charge to move without any
hindrance.
Conductors and Insulators
The properties of conductors and insulators

are due to the structure and electrical nature
of atoms.
Atoms consist of positively charged

protons, negatively charged electrons, and
electrically neutral neutrons. The protons
and neutrons are packed tightly together in
a central nucleus.
When atoms of a conductor come together

to form the solid, some of their outermost
(and so most loosely held) electrons
become free to wander about within the
solid, leaving behind positively charged
atoms ( positive ions).We call the mobile
electrons conduction electrons.
There are few (if any) free electrons in a
nonconductor.
Coulomb’s Law
The equation giving the electrostatic

force for charged particles is called
Coulomb’s law:
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb.
The electrostatic constant is
The quantity e0 is called the

permittivity constant
Coulomb’s Law: EXAMPLE 1
Two point charges, q1 = +25nC

and q2 = -75nC, are separated by a
distance r = 3.0 cm. Find the
magnitude and direction of the
electric force (a) that q1 exerts on
q2 and (b) that q2 exerts on q1.
Coal-burning power plants produce large

amounts of potential pollution in the form
of small particles (soot). Modern
smokestacks use devices called scrubbers
to remove these particles from the smoke
they emit. Scrubbers use two-step process:
electrons are first added to the soot
particle, and an electric force then pulls
the particle out of the smoke stream.
Consider a soot particle of mass msoot = 1.0

nanogram. Suppose a collector has a total
charge of qcollector = 1.0E-6 C and small
enough to be treated as point charge (a) If
the separation between the collector and
the soot particle is r = 0.10m, what is the
value of the qsoot so that the electric force
of the particle is equal to its weight? (b)
How many electrons must be added to the
soot particles?
Consider a soot particle of mass msoot = 1.0

nanogram. Suppose a collector has a total
charge of qcollector = 1.0E-6 C and small
enough to be treated as point charge (a) If
the separation between the collector and
the soot particle is r = 0.10m, what is the
value of the qsoot so that the electric force
of the particle is equal to its weight? (b)
How many electrons must be added to the
soot particles?
Example, The net force due to two other particles:
Fig. 21-8 (a) Two charged particles of

charges q1 and q2 are fixed in place on
an x axis. (b) The free-body diagram for
particle 1, showing the electrostatic
force on it from particle 2.
Example, The net force due to two other particles:
Example, The net force due to two other particles, cont.:
Fig. 21-8 (c) Particle 3

included. (d) Free-body
diagram for particle 1.
Fig. 21-8 (e) Particle 4 included. (f ) Freebody

diagram for particle 1.
Charge is Quantized
Since the days of Benjamin Franklin, our understanding of

of the nature of electricity has changed from being a type of
‘continuous fluid’ to a collection of smaller charged particles.
The total charge was found to always be a multiple of a certain
elementary charge, “e”:
The value of this elementary charge is one of the fundamental

constants of nature, and it is the magnitude of the charge
of both the proton and the electron. The value of “e” is:
(Millikan’s oil drop experiment in 1909)

Charge is Quantized
# Quarks have charge of ± ⅓ e or ± ⅔ e, but they never

appear individually (color confinement).
Charge is Quantized
Many descriptions of electric charge use

terms that might lead you to the conclusion
that charge is a substance. Phrases like:
“Charge on a sphere”
“Charge transferred”
“Charge carried on the electron”
However, charge is a property of particles,

one of many properties, such as mass.
Example, Mutual Electric Repulsion in a Nucleus:
Charge is Conserved
The hypothesis of conservation of charge has stood up under close
examination, both for large-scale charged bodies and for atoms, nuclei, and
elementary particles.
Example 1: Radioactive decay of nuclei, in which a nucleus transforms into

(becomes) a different type of nucleus.
A uranium-238 nucleus (238U) transforms into a thorium- 234 nucleus (234Th)
by emitting an alpha particle. An alpha particle has the same makeup as a
helium-4 nucleus, it has the symbol 4He. Here the net charge is 9290+2.
Example 2: An electron e- (charge -e) and its antiparticle, the positron e+

(charge +e), undergo an annihilation process, transforming into two gamma
rays (high-energy light):. Here the net charge is 00.
Example 3: A gamma ray (in a certain environment) transforms into an

electron and a positron. Here the net charge is again 00.

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Electric Forces and Fields

- There are two types of electric charge,

- Charge comes in quantized unit

- Like charges repel each other; unlike

The amount of charge that is

In the SI system of units,

Conductors are materials through which charge can

Nonconductors—also called insulators—are materials

Semiconductors are materials that are intermediate

Superconductors are materials that are perfect

The properties of conductors and insulators

Atoms consist of positively charged

When atoms of a conductor come together

The equation giving the electrostatic

The SI unit of charge is the coulomb.

The electrostatic constant is

The quantity e0 is called the

Two point charges, q1 = +25nC

Coal-burning power plants produce large

Consider a soot particle of mass msoot = 1.0

Consider a soot particle of mass msoot = 1.0

Fig. 21-8 (a) Two charged particles of

Fig. 21-8 (c) Particle 3

Fig. 21-8 (e) Particle 4 included. (f ) Freebody

Since the days of Benjamin Franklin, our understanding of

The value of this elementary charge is one of the fundamental

(Millikan’s oil drop experiment in 1909)

# Quarks have charge of ± ⅓ e or ± ⅔ e, but they never

Many descriptions of electric charge use

However, charge is a property of particles,

Example 1: Radioactive decay of nuclei, in which a nucleus transforms into

Example 2: An electron e- (charge -e) and its antiparticle, the positron e+

Example 3: A gamma ray (in a certain environment) transforms into an

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