Chapter 1

Common Ethical Theories

Learning Outcomes
Discuss and differentiate the different
ethical theories
Determine the ethical theory which is the
most appropriate to be applied by a
person in a particular scenario
Demonstrate the appropriate usefulness
of a specific ethical theory in a given case
Examine moral problems and formulate
conclusions
Introduction
Formal study of ethics goes back at least
two thousand four hundred years
Traced to the Greek philosopher Socrates
Philosophers have proposed many ethical
theories
A useful theory allows its proponents to
examine moral problems, reach
conclusions, and defend these
conclusions in front of a disbelieving, yet
open-minded audience
Introduction
“Ethics” broadly describes the way in
which we look at and understand life, in
terms of good and bad or right and wrong
Moral theories are the frameworks we use
to justify or clarify our position when we
ask ourselves “what should I do in this
situation?” or “what is right or wrong for
me?”
I. RELATIVISM

Theory that there are no universal moral

norm of right and wrong
According to this theory different
individuals or groups of people can have
completely opposite views of a moral
problem, and both can be right
KINDS of RELATIVISM

SUBJECTIVE RELATIVISM

Holds that each person decides right and

wrong for himself/herself
This notion is captured in the popular
expression “What’s right for you may not
be right for me.”
Case for Subjective Relativism

Well-meaning and intelligent people can

have totally opposite opinions about
moral issues
For example, consider the issue on
Reproductive Health (RH) bill in our
country
Case for Subjective Relativism
 There are significant numbers of rational people
who cannot reach the same conclusion that
morality is not like gravity; it is not something ”out
there” that rational people can discover and try
to understand
 Instead, each of us creates his or her own morality
 When faced with a difficult moral problem, who is
to say which side is correct?
 If morality is relative, we do not have to try to
reconcile opposing view.
 Both sides are right
Case for Subjective Relativism
Another case is the way professors treat their
students
Some, who are mostly education graduates,
may be too kind and considerate to their
students and they criticize some professors
who managed to fail more than half of their
students in a class
On the other hand, some professors, mostly
engineers, IT and Law professors would fail
their students notwithstanding only two or
three in a class will pass
Case for Subjective Relativism

In this instance, each professor should

respect the methodologies applied by
others
The theory of relativism is applicable in this
case
 The Case versus Subjective Relativism
With subjective relativism the line between doing what
you think is right and doing what you want to is not
sharply drawn
People are good at rationalizing their bad behavior
Provides an ideal last line of defense for someone
whose conduct is being questioned
When pressed to explain a decision or action, a
subjective relativist can reply “Who are you to tell me
what I should and should not do?’
If morality means doing whatever you want to do, it
doesn’t mean much, if it means anything at all
 The Case versus Subjective Relativism
This ethical theory won’t work on a patently morally
wrong act
If one believes that killing a corrupt government
official is proper, and he did kill several officials, this
theory will fail
Such act is morally wrong because killing is unlawful/
illegal and is against public policy and public order
No amount of good reasoning can justify such act
CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Ethical theory that the meaning of “right”

and “wrong” rests with society’s actual
moral guidelines
These guidelines vary widely from place to
place and from time to time
 The F2 Epidemic
One of the problems of ITE instructor is the F2
epidemic
This is called “F2 epidemic“ because ITE students
during the early 80’s uses either the Pascal and/or
the BASIC language running under DOS operating
system
The user’s interface of the said compiler uses the F2
function key to save file
The F2 Epidemic

Hence, when a potential student was able to

write the appropriate code for a specific
machine problems and/or case study, such
code will be automatically share to all others
It is like an epidemic which transfers to others as
quick as a speed of light
The F2 Epidemic

The culture during that time and at the present

time is that, when someone (student) was able
to code his program correctly and such student
failed to share his code, the entire class would
severely condemn him for being selfish
Hence, the potential student has no other
option but to share
The only reward that such a student would get is
the credit and appreciation of his classmates for
him
DIVINE COMMAND THEORY

Based on the idea that good actions are those

aligned with the will of God and bad actions are
those contrary to the will of God
Since the Holy Book contains God’s directions,
we can use the Holy Books as moral decision-
making guides.
God says we should respect our mothers and
fathers, so respecting our parents is good
DIVINE COMMAND THEORY

God says do not lie or steal, so lying and stealing

are bad
It is important to note that the divine command
theory is subscribed to by some, but not all
Based on obedience, not reason
DIVINE COMMAND THEORY

If good means “willed by God” and if religious texts

contains everything we need to know about what
God wills, then there is no room left for collecting
and analyzing facts
It is not based on reaching sound conclusions from
premises through logical reasoning
There is no need for a person to question a
commandment
The instruction is right because it is commanded by
God
We cannot question the sovereignty of God
DIVINE COMMAND THEORY

If good means “willed by God” and if religious texts

contains everything we need to know about what
God wills, then there is no room left for collecting
and analyzing facts
It is not based on reaching sound conclusions from
premises through logical reasoning
There is no need for a person to question a
commandment
The instruction is right because it is commanded by
God
We cannot question the sovereignty of God
 DIVINE COMMAND THEORY
Even assuming there is one translation of a Christian Bible,
there are different interpretation, thus:
The Jehova’s witnesses do not eat blood and do not
allow blood transfusion
Members of the Iglesia ni Cristo do not eat blood but
allows blood transfusion
Catholics allows both
Some Evangelical Christians do not eat blood
Seventh Day Adventist keep the Sabbath while the
foregoing Christians attend gatherings every Sundays
 Bill Gates III and
the Mark of the Beast
ETHICAL EGOISM

The philosophy that each person should focus

exclusively on his or her self interest
According to ethical egoism, the morally right
action for a person to take in a particular
situation is the action that will provide that
person with the maximum long-term benefit
Does not prohibit acting to help someone else,
but assisting another is the right thing to do if
and only if it is in the helper’s own long-term best
interest
ETHICAL EGOISM

For instance, Atty. Juan Matulungin is assisting

Jojo Binay in the latter’s bid for the presidency.
Why? Because if Jojo will win the presidency, it
would be certain that Jojo will appoint him in a
position Juan ever dreamed of, that is, to
become the Justice Secretary
ETHICAL EGOISM

Author personally believed that, all of us are

adopting this theory
All of us act for our own interests
Examples: you are reading this book because you
are told by your teacher to do so, maybe to add
knowledge to yourself. We study in college for our
own self-interests, that is, to have a bright future
Can you think of acts which will NOT benefit the
doers?
ETHICAL EGOISM

Be that as it may, this theory cannot justify a

patently wrongful acts
thus, a student who allows his seatmate to copy
his answer during examinations will not be
justified in doing such despite the fact that it is
for his own interests because of fear of rejection
by his classmates
The LIKE that You Don’t Like

There are several instances that in using our

Facebook account, somebody would request us,
“pa like naman! Thanks”. In response, we would
be forced to “like” it.

The above situation shows an example of the

ethical egoism. We will “like” something we really
do not like so that in the future our Facebook
friends will also “like” our status even if they don’t
like it.
CONSEQUENTIALISM

The consequence of an action justifies the moral

acceptability of the means taken to reach that
end
It is the consequence of an action which
determines whether or not the action is moral
The results of the action prevail over any other
consideration; simply stated, ‘ the end justifies
the means’
CONSEQUENTIALISM

Jeremy Bentham was an early and influential

advocate of utilitarianism, the dominant
consequentialist position
A utilitarian believes in ”the greatest happiness
for the greatest number”.
The more people who benefit from a particular
action, the greater its good

Illustrative case
THE CONSEQUENTIALIST IT STUDENT
KANTIANISM

Deontology or Kantianism is an obligation-based

theory whose chief author was Immanuel Kant
Emphasizes the type of action rather than the
consequences of that action
Deontologists believe that moral decision should
be made based on one’s duties and the rights
of other
KANTIANISM

According to Kant, morality is based on pure

reason
As people have the innate ability to act
rationally, they therefore must act morally,
irrespective of personal desires
“Act morally regardless of the consequences”

Let’s start with a hypothetical story

Hypothetical story
 From among the three persons who did their sworn duty
to their deceased friend and client?
 None of them did
 The doctor and the priest, if they believe that their
deceased friend cannot really take his money to heaven
had spent 75% and the 50% for some other good things
 They adopted the consequentialism theory
 On the other hand, the lawyer, who claimed that he had
fulfilled the last wish of their old friend adopted the
cultural relativism theory
KANTIANISM

Mostly adopted by lawyers

For example, a criminal lawyer will defend his
client notwithstanding that the latter is really
guilty of the same charge
Lawyers will do their duty to win case for their
client irrespective of its consequences
KANTIANISM

Policemen and soldiers in maintaining peace and

order and defending their country for possible
invasion is adopting this theory when, in the
performance of their duty, take lives of many
people
Killing of people is condemned, it is bad
However, Kantianism will just tell those religious
people adopting the divine command theory that,
killing is justified when duty calls
Duty to Incorporate the use of Technology
in the Classroom

There is a school, say, TABAKO University which provides for each classroom a built-in
multimedia projector, a desktop computer and a microphone so that the teacher would only
bring her PowerPoint presentation stored in a USB flash drive.
The school provided such technology in each classroom in its sincere desire to constantly
redefine the meaning of academic life and to maintain the highest standard of instruction. In
this instance, it is morally wrong if Prof. A will not provide a PowerPoint presentation for her
lecture because such failure will defeat the good intention of the school. As a matter of fact,
some schools require that a PowerPoint presentation is submitted by teacher a week before
the actual lecture and failure to do so will constitute tardiness charged against the teachers’
201 file.
Suppose Prof. A had all his lectures converted into a PowerPoint presentations and transfer to
Marlboro University. Prof. A however, cannot use his PowerPoint presentations because
Marlboro University is not providing the same technology in all its classrooms. Can we blame
Marlboro for its failure to provide technology for each of its classroom? Is it morally wrong for
Marlboro University for not providing technologies in its classrooms? Why? Or why not?